Essay on family relationships

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International Development Policy | Revue internationale de politique de developpement. Dossier | Africa: 50 years of independence — Review | Major development policy trends. African Economic Development and Colonial Legacies. This article reviews how colonial rule and on family relationships African actions during the colonial period affected the resources and institutional settings for subsequent economic development south of the Sahara. Ways Smoking Research Paper. The issue is seen from the perspective of the dynamics of development in essay on family, what was in 1900 an overwhelmingly land-abundant region characterised by shortages of courage labour and capital, by essay relationships, perhaps surprisingly extensive indigenous market activities and by varying but often low levels of political centralisation.

The differential impact of French and British rule is explored, but it is and creative argued that a bigger determinant of the differential evolution of poverty, welfare and on family structural change was the contrast between “settler” and “peasant” economies. 1 The current names of former colonies are preferred in this essay, not least because until the 1930s (. ) 1 This article asks how the legacies of European rule, both generally and in autobiographical research paper in your, particular categories of colony, have affected post-colonial economic development in Sub-Saharan Africa. On Family Relationships. The year 1960 is paper in your community conventionally used as the essay on family relationships, “stylised date” of independence, for the good reason that it saw the end of colonial rule in most of the to quit smoking paper, French colonies south of the Sahara as well as in the most populous British and Belgian ones (Nigeria and Congo respectively).1 Half a century is a reasonable period over which to essay on family relationships, review the economic impact of biographical courage legacies because it allows us to consider the issue in the context of different phases of post-colonial policy and performance. 2 The causal significance of legacies varies, in that they affect subsequent freedom of manoeuvre to different extents and in essay on family relationships, different directions. Language And Creative Writing Degrees. At its strongest, legacy takes the form of “path determination”, implying that colonial choices determined post-colonial ones, or at least conditioned them, such that departure from the colonial pattern was, and perhaps remains, difficult and costly. Besides asking about the strength of the essay, influence of the past on the future, we need to consider the nature of to quit that influence. Did colonial rule put African countries on on family relationships, a higher or lower path of economic change? It will be argued here that the “path(s)” on which African economies were (to a greater or lesser extent) set by the time of independence are most usefully seen not as necessarily initiated in the colonial period, but often rather as continuations and adjustments from ways smoking paths of change established before the European partition of the continent.

3 The following discussion has three preliminary sections. Thus, chapter 2 first attempts a summary of the economic record since independence in order to define the pattern for which colonial legacies may have been partly responsible. Chapter 3 outlines contending views of those legacies. Relationships. Chapter 4 tries to define the economic and political structures and trends within Africa on language degrees, the eve of the European partition of the continent. It identifies an emerging African comparative advantage in relationships, land-extensive forms of production, which West Africans in technology entrepreneurship, particular were already exploiting and, by their investments and initiatives, deepening. 4 In this framework, chapter 5 then introduces the relationships, colonial regimes, highlighting their fiscal constraints and comparing different national styles of colonial rule, focusing on english writing, the largest empires, those of Britain and France. Essay On Family. It is ways to quit smoking research a theme of this essay, however, that another kind of variation between colonies was more important, i.e. that defined by essay, the extent and form of European appropriation and use of land: “settler”, “plantation” and “peasant” colonies.

Chapter 6 considers how far colonial rule (and the actions of European companies that it facilitated) reinforced the emergence of a comparative advantage in land-extensive primary exports and technology entrepreneurship phd thesis looks at the consequences of this for the welfare of the essay on family relationships, population. Chapter 7 explores colonial contributions, and ways smoking their limits, for the very long-term shift of African factor endowments from labour scarcity towards labour abundance and a relatively high level of human capital formation, such as helped Tokugawa Japan, and more recently other parts of Asia, to achieve “labour-intensive industrialisation” (Sugihara 2007). Chapter 8 assesses the impact of different kinds of European regime on African entrepreneurship and on institutions facilitating, hindering or channelling African participation in markets. Chapter 9 completes the substantive discussion by commenting on the long-term effects of the colonial intrusion on the capacity of the State in Africa for facilitating and promoting economic development. 2. Essay On Family. Post-colonial change and variation. 5 Notoriously, output per head in Sub-Saharan Africa is the entrepreneurship phd thesis, lowest of any major world region and on family relationships has, on average, expanded slowly and haltingly since 1960. But there have been important changes, and variations over research paper on race in your space, in policy and performance. In policy, structural adjustment in on family relationships, the 1980s marked a watershed: a fundamental shift from administrative to market means of resource allocation. The change, however, was less dramatic in most of the former French colonies, where (except in Guinea) the maintenance of a convertible currency had enabled governments to avoid some of the on family planning in pakistan, supplementary price and quantity controls which had increasingly been imposed in the mostly former British colonies outside the franc zone. In performance, aggregate economic growth rates in the region were pretty respectable until 1973-75 (Jerven 2009). Ironically, in the decade or so following the adoption of structural adjustment they were stagnant or negative, before the Chinese-led boom in essay on family relationships, world commodity prices eased the region into 12 years of on family in pakistan gross domestic product (GDP) growth at an average of 5% a year before the relationships, crises of 2007 (rising fuel and food prices, then the beginning of the international financial crisis) and 2008 brought about a “great recession” in 2009 (IMF 2009).

1 For a general account see Rimmer (1992, esp. 5, 228). 6 There were notable exceptions to the general growth trends, both before and after the language and creative, turning-point in the early to mid-1970s. Cote d’Ivoire and Ghana made a particularly interesting contrast: similarly-sized neighbours with relatively similar factor endowments and geographical features, but with different colonial heritages. Cote d’Ivoire underwent what might loosely be described as a magnified version of the standard growth trajectory. It averaged an annual GDP growth of on family relationships 9.5% from 1960 to 1978 (Berthelemy and Soderling 2001, 324-5) but then had several years of stagnation followed by civil war. Meanwhile, Ghana did almost the biographical courage, opposite. On Family. Ghanaian GDP per capita was barely higher in to quit research, 1983, when it began structural adjustment, than at independence in 1957.1 However, as one of the essay on family, two most successful cases of structural adjustment in Africa (the other being Uganda), Ghana averaged nearly 5% annual growth during the quarter-century after 1983. Thus, roughly, while Cote d’Ivoire was rising Ghana was falling, and research paper community vice versa.

Only one Sub-Saharan economy, Botswana, sustained growth over three, indeed four, decades since its independence, which was in 1966. Botswana averaged 9.3% annual growth (Berthelemy and Soderling 2001, 324-5). 3. Contrasting perspectives on the colonial legacy. 2 For Africanist commentaries see Austin (2008b) and Hopkins (2009). 7 A feature of the theoretical and ideological debate about the history of essay relationships economic development in Africa is that it is possible to reach rather similar conclusions from very different scholarly and political starting-points. Regarding the colonial impact, the case for the prosecution, which a generation ago was urged most strongly by dependency theorists and radical nationalists (Amin 1972; Rodney 1972), is now championed by “rational choice” growth economists. Daron Acemoglu, Simon Johnson and James A. Robinson (2001; 2002) have argued that Africa’s relative poverty at the end of the 20th century was primarily the result of the form taken by European colonialism on the continent: Europeans settling for extraction rather than settling themselves in overwhelming numbers and thereby introducing the kinds of institution (private property rights and systems of english language writing government that would support them) that, according to Acemoglu, Johnson and Robinson, was responsible for economic development in Europe and the colonies of European settlement in North America and Australasia.2. 8 Colonial extraction in Africa could be seen most decisively in the appropriation of land for European settlers or plantations, a strategy used not only to provide European investors and settlers with cheap and secure control of land, but also to oblige Africans to sell their labour to European farmers, planters or mine-owners (Palmer and Parsons 1977).

Even in the “peasant” colonies, i.e. where the land remained overwhelmingly in African ownership, we will see that major parts of the services sector were effectively monopolised by Europeans. Then there was coercive recruitment of labour by colonial administrations, whether to work for the State or for European private enterprise (Fall 1993; Northrup 1988). Of potentially great long-term importance was the unwillingness of colonial governments to essay on family relationships, accept, still less promote, the emergence of markets in land rights on land occupied by paper on race in your, Africans, whether in “settler” or “peasant” colonies (Phillips 1989). From the perspectives of both dependency theory and “rational choice” institutionalism, the original sin of essay relationships colonialism in Africa was that it did not introduce a full-blooded capitalist system, based upon private property and thereby generating the pressures towards competition and accumulation necessary to drive self-sustained economic growth. 9 A narrower but important argument was made by the then small group of liberal development economists between the 1950s and 1970s. Technology. At a time when development economists (especially but not exclusively those writing in French) tended to favour a leading role for the State in the search for development in mixed economies (Hugon 1993; Killick 1978) P. T. Bauer (1953; 1972) attacked the essay, late colonial State for no pain essay introducing statutory marketing boards and thereby laying the foundation of what he considered to be deadening State interventionism. 10 Explicitly positive overviews of colonial rule in Africa are rare (but see Duignan and essay on family Gann 1975).

Many studies, though, mention the writing degrees, suppression of intra-African warfare, the abolition of internal slave trading and slavery, the on family relationships, introduction of mechanised transport and investment in infrastructure, and the development of modern manufacturing in the “settler” economies and in the Belgian Congo. Excited by the late 20th century wave of economic “globalisation”, some economic liberals have argued that the British empire pioneered the process through its general opposition to ways smoking paper, tariff protection (1846-1931) and by other pro-market measures (Ferguson 2003; Lal 2004). With respect to on family, tariffs, this case would apply less strongly to French colonies because of the protectionism of the French empire. It is also much less true of the final 30 years of British rule in ways, Africa, which saw not only tariffs but also the creation of essay on family relationships marketing boards. From the perspective of institutional change, a fundamental observation applicable to biographical narrative essay courage, the region generally was highlighted by John Sender and Sheila Smith (1986). Writing in the “tragic optimist” tradition of Marx’s writings on British rule in India, they emphasised that wage labour was rare at the beginning of colonial rule and increasingly common by the end of it. For them, as for Bill Warren (1980), imperialism was the on family relationships, “pioneer of capitalism”. 11 Besides optimism and pessimism, a third view of colonial rule, and by autobiographical research in your community, implication of its legacy, is that its importance has been over-rated.

There are different routes to this conclusion. Many historians are struck by the brevity of colonial rule south of the Sahara, i.e. about 60 years in most of tropical Africa (Ajayi 1969), and by the weakness of the essay on family, colonial State (Herbst 2000). Technology Entrepreneurship. In this setting it can plausibly be argued that whatever went well in the “peasant” economies (and cash crop economies expanded greatly) was mainly the responsibility of Africans, through their economic rationality and entrepreneurship, a position epitomised by Polly Hill (1997). More ambivalent are the arguments of Jean-Francois Bayart (1989; 2000). Building on the familiar observation that rulers in Africa have usually found it hard to raise large revenues from domestic sources, Bayart argues that, during colonial rule and since, African elites became clients of colonial or overseas States. Thereby they forged relations which, though unequal, benefited themselves as well as the foreigners. Whereas dependency theory emphasised the primacy of foreign agency in determining historical outcomes, Bayart insists that African elites played a calculating and key role in establishing the on family, “extraverted” pattern of African political economy. 4. A pre-colonial perspective on colonial legacies. 12 To evaluate the colonial legacy, we need to distinguish it from the situation and trends at the beginning of colonial rule, which in most of Sub-Saharan Africa occurred during the European “Scramble”, from 1879 to circa 1905.

At that time the region was, as before, characterised generally (not everywhere all the time) by writing, an abundance of cultivable land in essay on family, relation to the labour available to till it (Hopkins 1973; Austin 2008a). On Family. This did not mean “resource abundance” as much of Africa’s mineral endowment was either unknown or inaccessible with pre-industrial technology or was not yet valuable even overseas. For example, many of the major discoveries (notably of oil in Nigeria and on family diamonds in research in your, Botswana) were to occur only during the relationships, period of decolonisation. Narrative Essay Courage. Moreover, the essay, fertility of much of the land was relatively low or at least fragile, making it costly or difficult to no pain no gain essay writing, pursue intensive cultivation, especially in on family relationships, the absence of animal manure. Sleeping sickness prevented the use of large animals, whether for ploughing or transport, in ways research paper, the forest zones and much of the savannas. The extreme seasonality of the annual distribution of rainfall rendered much of the dry season effectively unavailable for farm work. On Family. The consequent low opportunity cost of dry-season labour reduced the incentive to raise labour productivity in ways to quit research paper, craft production. Conversely, the characteristic choices of farming techniques were land-extensive and labour-saving; but the thinness of the soils constrained the returns on labour (Austin 2008a).

All this helps to explain why the productivity of African labour was apparently higher outside Africa over several centuries, cf. the underlying economic logic of the external slave trades which in turn, ironically, aggravated the scarcity of labour within Africa itself (Austin 2008b; Manning 1990). 13 Within Africa, the structure of incentives encouraged a high degree of self-sufficiency, and by essay on family relationships, the middle of the 20th century it was widely assumed that pre-colonial economies had necessarily been overwhelmingly subsistence-oriented. On Family Planning. The last half-century of research has progressively changed this assessment, especially for essay West Africa where a strong tendency towards extra-subsistence production was evident in the 16th and 17th centuries. While damaged by essay, the aggravated “Dutch disease” effects of the essay on family relationships, Atlantic slave trade (Inikori 2007; Austin, forthcoming), this tendency was strongly resumed from the first decade of the no gain essay writing, 19th century when that trade began to on family relationships, be abolished, with West Africans producing on a wider and larger scale for internal as well as overseas markets. Given the relative scarcity of labour, and in autobiographical on race community, the absence (generally) of essay on family significant economies of no gain scale in production, it was rare for the reservation wage (the minimum wage rate sufficient to persuade people to sell their labour rather than work for essay on family relationships themselves) to be low enough for a would-be employer to afford to pay it. Hence the labour markets of pre-colonial Africa mainly took the form of slave trading (Austin 2005, chapters 6, 8; Austin 2008a).

14 The same abundance of technology entrepreneurship phd thesis land made political centralisation difficult to achieve and sustain (Herbst 2000). Political fragmentation had facilitated the Atlantic slave trade, in that larger States would have had stronger incentives and capacities for rejecting participation in it (Inikori 2003). This fragmentation later facilitated the European conquest. Ethiopia was the exception that proved the rule, with its fertile central provinces and large agricultural surplus supporting a long-established and modernising State that, alone in Africa, had the economic base to resist the “Scramble” successfully. 2 The historiography is too complex to be summarised here. But it can be said that, although the moti (. ) 15 By no coincidence,2 most of Sub-Saharan Africa was colonised at a time when the on family relationships, industrialisation of Europe was creating or expanding markets for various commodities that could profitably be produced in Africa. The land-labour ratio, the environmental constraints on intensive agriculture and also the specific qualities of biographical essay particular kinds of land in various parts of the continent gave Africa at least a potential comparative advantage in land-extensive primary production.

By the time of colonisation, especially in West Africa, the indigenous populations were increasingly taking advantage of the combination of these supply-side features and essay relationships of access to expanding overseas markets. From Senegal to Cameroon thousands of tonnes of groundnuts and palm oil, and from the 1880s rubber, were being produced for sale to European merchants (Law 1995). 5. Colonial regimes: similarities and research community variations. 16 Colonial rule in Africa was intended to be cheap, viz. for essay on family taxpayers in Europe. The British doctrine was that each colony should be fiscally self-supporting. Thus, any growth in government expenditure was supposed to be financed from english degrees higher revenues, as it was in Ghana in the 1920s when Governor Guggisberg was able to fund the creation of what became the country’s best-known hospital and school, as well as a new harbour and more railways and roads, from customs proceeds that had been fuelled by the colony’s increasing exports of cocoa beans. In practice the French were equally committed to covering costs. Relationships. In French West Africa too there was a major programme of public works in the 1920s, although, as also in Ghana, within a few years expenditure had to be curtailed when export prices fell and the growth of revenue ended (Hopkins 1973, 190). 17 After retrenchment during the 1930s Depression, and especially during the Second World War, colonial administrations found themselves (for a variety of reasons) entering the post-war era with a new public commitment to on family planning, be seen to promote actively the essay relationships, development of the economies over which they presided. Ways To Quit. “Developmental” language was partly redeemed by greater spending. In principle this came partly from the metropolitan taxpayer.

However, in the French case Patrick Manning (1998, 123-5) has calculated that the government continued to receive more in tax from Africa than it spent in Africa. In British West Africa the new statutory export marketing boards accrued substantial surpluses by keeping a large margin between the on family, price paid to producers and the price that the boards received for community the crop on the world market. The surpluses were kept in essay on family, London, in autobiographical paper in your community, British government bonds, as forced savings from on family relationships African farmers (Rimmer 1992, 41-2), which assisted the autobiographical research on race in your, British metropolitan economy to recover from the post-war dollar shortage. 18 The particular identity of the colonial power made some difference to the lives of those subjected to European rule. Contrasts between the two largest empires in Africa are traditionally made with reference to greater British reliance on African chiefs as intermediaries (“indirect rule”) and the French doctrine of assimilating a small minority of Africans into French culture and citizenship. On the whole it is arguable that, in economic terms, the similarities were much greater than the essay on family, differences, except when the latter arose from the composition of their respective African empires. French rule, like British, relied on African intermediaries, including chiefs, even though France was much more insistent on abolishing African monarchies (as in Dahomey, in on family planning, contrast to the British treatment of the structures and dynasties of the States of Buganda, Botswana, Lesotho and, after an abortive attempt at abolition, Ashanti). In West Africa the French made much greater use of forced labour, but that was primarily because the French territories were, from the essay, start, relatively lacking in cash-earning and therefore wage-paying potential. That specific policy, Corvee and its use to benefit white planters rather than African farmers, made a difference to research on race, the colonial legacy in Ghana and Cote d’Ivoire. It meant that African cocoa farming took off much more quickly and dramatically in the former, so that Ghana was much wealthier at independence, when Cote d’Ivoire was in the process of catching up (and overtaking) after a late start (Hopkins 1973, 218-9), which it proceeded to do by the 1980s.

3 This is also the case for Madagascar, which is beyond the scope of the discussion here. 4 Gross national incomes in relationships, PPP terms averaged USD 918 in the former British colonies and USD 1,208 i (. ) 19 The contention here that the differences between the legacies of British and French rule in Africa are primarily attributable to variations in the composition of the African empires concerned may need to no pain essay, be qualified in the light of valuable recent research by Thomas Bossuroy and Denis Cogneau (2009). They examined social mobility in five African countries and found that in essay on family, the former British colonies in their sample, Ghana and Uganda, “the links between origin, migration, education and occupational achievement appear much looser” than in technology, the former French colonies they examined, i.e. Cote d’Ivoire and on family Guinea3 (Bossuroy and degrees Cogneau 2009, 2). In explanation, they emphasise the importance of essay relationships greater investment in education in autobiographical research on race in your, the British colonies than the French colonies in relationships, their sample. This is a novel and important line of inquiry. I suspect that the favourable conclusion about the former British colonies also partly reflects the fact that Ghana and Uganda, for reasons that are only partly and indirectly connected to their respective British legacies, were the technology entrepreneurship, two major growth successes of structural adjustment in Africa, therefore perhaps offering greater opportunities for educational, physical and occupational mobility from the mid-1980s, which was early enough to relationships, be partly reflected in biographical narrative, the data and which coincided with economic stagnation and then civil war in Cote d’Ivoire.

Finally, the contrast may also partly reflect the essay relationships, legacy of the era of Corvee and “settler” agriculture in Cote d’Ivoire, before the economy took off in the 1950s and 1960s. As of 1990, helped by the legacy of the autobiographical research paper on race in your community, Ivorian “miracle”, in on family, a sample of 26 former British and French colonies in tropical Africa (so excluding southern Africa) it was the former French colonies that had the higher per capita incomes in paper in your, Purchasing Power Parity (PPP) terms, by over 30% (Bossuroy and Cogneau 2009, 45, citing World Bank data).4. 6. Colonial rule and Africa’s specialisation in primary product exports. 20 The “extraversion” and “monoculture” of African economies is widely lamented and condemned as a victory of colonial interests over African interests. The risks entailed in extreme specialisation, however, need to be set against the long-run income gain to be expected from the exploitation of comparative advantage. But again, although the location of relationships a colonial economy’s comparative advantage could be identified, sooner or later the task of autobiographical on race community capitalising on it raised the question of essay what investments might profitably deepen that advantage and, above all, of how the costs and benefits would be distributed.

Conflicts of phd thesis ideology, and especially the balance of essay on family power between different interest groups, worked out variously across the range of African colonies. The most fundamental difference was between the “peasant” and “settler” economies. Let us consider the and creative writing, contrasting cases of export agriculture in the former, notably in West Africa, and mining in the latter, most obviously in South Africa. 21 We have noted that, by the eve of the European partition of the continent, Africa had already revealed an emerging comparative advantage in essay, export agriculture. In West Africa in particular it was in thesis on family in pakistan, the joint interests of the population, European merchants and the colonial administrations to further this. In Ghana British planters were initially allowed to enter to grow cocoa beans. But lacking the discriminatory support from the government that their counterparts enjoyed in Kenya and southern Africa, they failed in relationships, commercial competition with African producers (Austin 1996a), just as French planters were later to be eclipsed by autobiographical paper on race community, African ones in Cote d’Ivoire following the abolition of Corvee . Colonial reliance on essay on family, the efforts of African small capitalists and entrepreneurship peasants in the growing and local marketing of export crops paid off in what became Ghana and Nigeria, with more than 20-fold increases in the real value of foreign trade between 1897 and 1960 (Austin 2008a, 612), benefiting British commercial interests as well as (via customs duties) the colonial treasury. The efforts of W. H. Lever, the soap manufacturer, to win government permission, along with the necessary coercive support, to establish huge oil palm plantations in Nigeria continued from 1906 to 1925, but they were always rebuffed in favour of continued African occupation of virtually all agricultural land.

Ultimately this was because African producers literally delivered the goods (Hopkins 1973, 209-14) through land-extensive methods well adapted to essay relationships, the factor endowment. They rejected the advice of colonial agricultural officers when it conflicted with the requirements of efficient adaptation (Austin 1996a). English Language. The positive contribution of the administrations was to reinforce and permit the on family, exploitation of these economies’ comparative advantage in export agriculture. They did this partly by technology entrepreneurship phd thesis, investment in transport infrastructure, investment to which African entrepreneurs also contributed (Austin 2007). Equally important, although the colonial administration never really established a system of land titling, in essay, Ghana (for example) it upheld the indigenous customary right of farmers to ownership of trees they had planted, irrespective of the outcome of any later litigation about the ownership of the land the trees stood upon. Thus, African producers enjoyed sufficient security of tenure to feel safe in investing in tree crops on a scale sufficient to create, in the case of Ghana, what became for nearly 70 years the world’s largest cocoa economy (Austin 2005, chapters 14, 17). 22 South Africa had gold and diamonds, but their profitable exploitation required that the cost of labour be reduced far below what the physical labour-land ratio implied.

C. H. Feinstein’s quantitative exercise indicates that without such coercive intervention in the labour market, most of South Africa’s mines would have been unprofitable until the end of the gold standard era in 1932 (Feinstein 2005, 109-12). If South Africa eventually obtained a “free market” comparative advantage in mining, it was only after several decades of using extra-market means to technology, repress black wages, notably through land appropriation and measures to essay on family, stop Africans from working on European-owned land except as labourers rather than tenants. 23 Comparison of the economic legacies of European rule for poverty in “settler” and “peasant” economies is complicated by biographical essay courage, the many variations between individual colonies. However, some generalisations are possible. It is clear that the distribution of wealth and income was, and essay on family relationships has remained, much more unequal in the “settler” economies than in the “peasant” ones. Preliminary findings by Sue Bowden, Blessing Chiripanhura and Paul Mosley (2008) support the technology, proposition that possession of land put a floor under real wages in essay on family relationships, the “peasant” colonies, enabling labourers migrating into export-crop growing areas to share in english and creative writing degrees, the gains from exports that were otherwise divided between European firms, African and Asian middlemen and African farm-owners (see also Austin 2005).

Bowden, Chiripanhura and Mosley find real wages beginning to rise from the 1920s and 1930s in the “peasant” colonies of Ghana and Uganda respectively and not falling back afterwards to essay on family relationships, the 1914 floor. In contrast, it was only in the 1970s that the real wages of black gold-miners in South Africa began a sustained rise above their early 20th century level (Lipton 1986, 410). In the sample taken by Bowden, Chiripanhura and Mosley it was only in the “pure settler” economies, South Africa and Zimbabwe (Southern Rhodesia), not in the “peasant” colonies of Ghana or Uganda nor even in the intermediate case of Kenya, that there were declines in rural African living standards over periods of longer than 15 years within the 20th century. This pattern in real wages, together with the long-term expansion of African export agriculture which underpinned the growth of real wages in the “peasant” colonies, was reflected in the earlier onset of falling infant mortality in Ghana and Uganda compared to Southern Rhodesia and South Africa. 24 It should be added that many African colonies were short of both known mineral deposits and the kinds of land suitable for writing profitable export agriculture. These were not selected for European settlement, nor were their economies driven by strong African rural-capitalist and peasant production.

They had to rely on seasonal exports of male wage labourers, and on growing the less lucrative cash crops such as cotton, the timing of whose labour requirements conflicted with those of food crops, thereby creating risks to food security (Tosh 1980). A current wave of research, led by Alexander Moradi, uses height as a measure of physical welfare. The average height of African populations rose during the colonial period in Ghana and even in the “semi-settler” economy of Kenya (Moradi 2008; 2009). When this research is extended to poorer colonies such as southern Sudan, Tanganyika (mainland Tanzania) or those in the West African Sahel, it would be no surprise if welfare improvements there are found to have been smaller than in the better-endowed economies studied so far. It was particularly in (selected areas of) the less favourably-endowed economies that colonial governments sought to raise productivity through very large-scale, capital-intensive and authoritarian projects, notably the on family, massive irrigation scheme of the Office du Niger in Mali and the mechanisation campaign of the East African Groundnut Project in Tanganyika. Both were spectacular failures in their own output and thesis on family in pakistan productivity terms, not least because they were inefficient in relation to the prevailing factor ratios and physical environments (Hogendorn and Scott 1981; Roberts 1996, 223-48; Van Beusekom 2002).

25 Poor as was the record of “settler” colonialism for the living standards of the indigenous population, it was in colonies where Europeans appropriated land on a large scale, for settlers or for companies, that the earlier and larger beginnings were made in modern manufacturing. 26 Where industrialisation has occurred in Asia, it has tended to follow a more labour-intensive route than in Europe and North America, substituting longer working hours for additional machinery where possible (Sugihara 2007) and generally having a higher proportion of labour to capital at any given level of output. A region in which labour as well as capital was scarce in relation to land, such as Sub-Saharan Africa, was not well suited to follow either route in on family, the early 20th century. 5 In Katanga, in contrast to South Africa, the black labour force was “stabilised” from the 1920s onw (. Smoking Research. ) 27 Yet, South Africa, followed on a smaller scale by Southern Rhodesia, acquired a substantial manufacturing sector by the time most of the rest of Africa achieved independence. The “artificially” low cost of black labour helped, but only in essay on family relationships, unskilled jobs because the skilled ones were anyway reserved for whites and the choice of technique was generally capital-intensive. Manufacturing growth was made possible by tariff protection, where locational advantage (as with brewing and cement manufacture) did not suffice. Ways To Quit Paper. Crucially, mining provided the import-purchasing power to cover the import of capital goods and, where necessary, raw materials. It was also the direct or indirect source of much of the revenue used by governments to invest in manufacturing, whether directly or through the provision of infrastructure. The large European populations were a source of essay both educated workers and capital, but arguably their most important contribution to industrialisation was the political commitment to biographical narrative, support it even at on family relationships, the cost of consumer prices that were often above world market levels (Austen 1987, 181-7; Kilby 1975; Wood and Jordan 2000). Moving up the value chain became an ambition of substantial proportions of white voters where they controlled governments, as in research community, South Africa after 1910 and to a large extent in Southern Rhodesia from 1923, as well as of African voters since independence. In South Africa the “Pact” government of the National and Labour parties, elected in 1924, embarked on a policy of promoting import-substituting industrialisation through tariffs and State investment in electricity and steel (Feinstein 2005, 113-35).

Southern Rhodesia followed in the 1930s, partly in response to the challenge of the new South African customs regime (Phimister 2000). Besides these “settler” colonies, there was a third case of precocious growth of essay modern manufacturing, i.e. the Belgian Congo. This was absolutely not a case of settler independence or autonomy. As in southern Africa, however, mines provided a favourable context for import-substituting industry, providing infrastructure, import-purchasing power and to quit smoking paper part of the essay on family relationships, market.5 South Africa remained the flagship of manufacturing in the region, but the no pain no gain essay writing, scope for further expansion was increasingly restricted by the high price of skilled labour in an economy where only a minority of the essay, population had access to secondary education and by autobiographical research in your, the limited market for mass-produced goods that resulted from the low level of black wages. If the radical school was right about the essay relationships, contribution of repressive racial policies to economic growth in the early 20th century (Trapido 1971), the liberals were right about the period preceding the fall of apartheid, i.e. the system was now a brake, not a booster, on the development of the economy (Moll 1990; Nattrass 1991; Feinstein 2005). 6 Actual GDP was surely greater because of the likely underestimation of the informal sector. This im (. ) 28 Back in 1960 modern manufacturing in South Africa was large but not very competitive internationally. Thesis Planning. In the rest of on family Sub-Saharan Africa it was much smaller. Ways Paper. There were only two countries in which manufacturing accounted for more than 10% of recorded or officially-estimated GDP,6 i.e.

Southern Rhodesia (16%) and the Belgian Congo (14%). Next, on 9.5%, the “semi-settler” economy of Kenya tied with Senegal (Kilby 1975, 472). The latter was a “peasant” colony but, as the administrative and essay on family relationships commercial centre of autobiographical French West Africa, had an exceptionally large resident European population, which increased the supply of people with managerial experience, technical expertise and access to capital (Kilby 1975, 473, 488-90). In West Africa even these low 1960 levels of manufacturing represented a very late surge, propelled by post-war developmentalism (government subsidies for manufacturing in the case of Senegal) and decolonisation, which led European firms to establish local factories to relationships, protect their existing markets (Kilby 1975, 475, 490-507; Boone 1992, 65-77). 29 Given the relative scarcity of labour and the small markets, together with the comparative advantage in land-extensive primary production, it is not surprising that there was not much more manufacturing by the end of the colonial period. Where there were opportunities, colonial governments were rarely interested in upsetting the status quo in which colonial markets for manufactured goods were supplied largely by monopsonistic European merchants, selling goods disproportionately produced in the European metropolitan economy concerned (Brett 1973, 266-82; Kilby 1975). But given that, despite rising population, the factor endowments of even the larger African economies were not suited to industrialisation in 1960, the more important question is perhaps whether colonial rule, directly or indirectly, laid foundations on which Africa might later develop the conditions for a much larger growth of manufacturing. 7 As of 1950 Dakar’s electricity was the most expensive in the world (Boone 1992, 66, 67n).

30 Asian experience suggests that this would most plausibly take a labour-intensive form. In the long term the most fundamental change of the colonial period was probably the start of no gain essay sustained population growth, which in aggregate can be dated from the end of the 1918 influenza pandemic, although local timing varied. How far the demographic breakthrough was the result of colonial actions, such as the suppression of slave raiding, the post-1918 peace within Africa and public health measures that reduced crisis mortality, is difficult to determine (Iliffe 1995, 238-41). The Sub-Saharan population is estimated to have doubled to about 200 million between 1900 and 1960 (for references see Austin 2008a, 591). So the demographic conditions for cheaper labour were beginning, but only essay on family beginning, to technology entrepreneurship, be established. But labour-intensive industrialisation also requires investment in energy supply and labour quality. It needs workers who are disciplined and perhaps have specific skills or are trained to facilitate the acquisition of new ones (Sugihara, forthcoming). School enrolment rates rose during the essay on family relationships, colonial era from low or non-existent levels and in many countries doubled or tripled between 1950 and 1960.

This was especially helped by African politicians gaining control of domestic budgets during the transition to independence, such as in Nigeria where primary enrolment was raised from 971,000 to 2,913,000 and secondary enrolment was raised from 28,000 to phd thesis, 135,000 (Sender and Smith 1986, 62). Essay Relationships. In 1957 annual electric power output stood at language, 2,750 million kilowatts in essay on family relationships, the Belgian Congo and at 2,425 million kilowatts in the Central African Federation (within which most of the electricity was produced in Southern Rhodesia). Research. In contrast, according to figures for the previous year, French West Africa produced a combined total of 138 million kilowatts,7 Nigeria 273 million kilowatts and the rest of British West Africa 84 million kilowatts (Kamarck 1964, 271). Hence, despite the popularity of industrialisation with nationalists, the newly-independent countries were not well equipped to embark on labour-intensive industrialisation in the 1960s. Essay On Family. Those that sought to english degrees, industrialise opted for capital-intensive methods (subsidising capital, protective tariffs) and the factories tended to became creators of relationships economic rents rather than of profits from competitive success (Boone 1992). 8. Autobiographical On Race Community. Markets and African entrepreneurship. 3 For examples from each era respectively for Nigeria see Shea (2006), Wariboko (1998), Hopkins (197 (. ) 31 African entrepreneurship has driven changes in the choice of products and in the means and organisation of production in various contexts before, during and since colonial rule.3 This has been particularly conspicuous in West Africa, whose 19th century pre-colonial economies tended to be regarded as more market-oriented than those of the other major regions of Sub-Saharan Africa (Austin, forthcoming).

The colonial impact on African entrepreneurship and on the markets in which they operated again turned to a large extent on whether there were large-scale appropriations of land for the use of Europeans, be they individual settlers or corporations. 32 This familiar division between “settler” and “plantation” colonies, on one hand, and “peasant” (and rural capitalist) colonies, on essay, the other, was far from on family purely exogenous to African economic history. Where African producers were able to enter export markets early and on a wide scale, before European exporters really got going, their success was sufficient to tip the balance of the argument among colonial policy-makers in favour of essay on family relationships those who thought it economically as well as politically wisest to leave agricultural production in African hands. As we saw in chapter 6, British West Africa was the major example of this. In South Africa, Southern Rhodesia and Kenya African farmers responded quickly to opportunities to entrepreneurship, grow additional grain to supply internal markets.

But the governments reacted by trying to drive Africans out of the on family relationships, produce market and into english and creative degrees the labour market by essay relationships, reserving land for narrative courage Europeans, while either prohibiting Africans from leasing it back or (as in inter-war Kenya) limiting the time that African “squatters” could work for themselves rather than for their European landlords (Palmer and Parsons 1977; Kanogo 1987). African production for essay on family relationships the market proved resilient, however, and the governments eventually accepted this and shifted to imposing controls on planning, agricultural marketing that favoured European producers rather than trying to displace African ones. In Kenya it was only in the mid-1950s, during the Mau Mau revolt, that the government lifted restrictions on African production of high-value cash crops (Mosley 1983). Thus, to the extent that African production for the market in the late 19th century was greater in essay on family, what became the “peasant” agricultural-export economies than in what became the “settler” economies, that contrast was reinforced by government actions in the latter over autobiographical on race the following decades. 33 Not that the maintenance of African ownership of land necessarily entailed support for African capitalism. Admittedly, we have seen that the colonial State in Ghana protected the property of agricultural investors, in the sense of preserving the ownership of a farmer over trees or crops that he or she had planted, irrespective of the outcome of legal disputes about the ownership of the land on essay on family, which they stood.

But in “settler” and “peasant” colonies alike colonial governments were hesitant and usually hostile to the emergence of land markets in areas controlled by Africans. This policy eventually changed in Southern Rhodesia and Kenya, with selective promotion of land registration, in response to the de facto emergence of technology entrepreneurship phd thesis land sales and individual proprietorship (cultivable land having become increasingly scarce in the areas left to Africans) and with African land-owners being seen as a politically conservative force in the context of Mau Mau (Mosley 1983, 27-8; Kanogo 1987). In West Africa, without the settler pressure on African access to land, and essay on family given the ways smoking research paper, expansion of essay on family cash crops that occurred early in the colonial period and again in technology phd thesis, the 1950s, neither the essay on family, political case nor the economic case for no pain compulsory land titling was as yet compelling (Austin 2005). 34 African entrepreneurs, like European ones, needed to be able to hire labour. In this context the colonial record was one of gradual, mostly reluctant, innovation. Sooner or (often) later, they legislated against slavery.

But in West Africa, the region with evidently the largest slave population at the start of the 20th century, the replacement of the essay relationships, slave market by planning in pakistan, a wage labour market depended very much on the progress of African cash crop agriculture (Austin 2009). During the inter-war decades the continued use of forced labour by colonial administrations came under sustained pressure from the International Labour Office in Geneva. The embarrassment of this contributed to further reluctant and gradual reform. By the end of the Second World War, as Frederick Cooper (1996) has shown, British and French authorities had accepted that wage labour had become a regular occupation for Africans, rather than a seasonal sideline from farming. Essay Relationships. Indeed, Cooper went on to show that in London and Paris the technology phd thesis, long-run fiscal implications of having to give workers in relationships, Africa the same rights as workers in Europe contributed to the decisions to withdraw from tropical Africa. For African societies the end of slavery and the rise of wage labour was arguably a condition of continued large-scale participation in thesis on family, international trade. As early as 1907 the chocolate manufacturer Cadbury had moved its cocoa-buying to Ghana following bad publicity about “slave-grown” cocoa in the Portuguese colony of Sao Tome, where it had been buying before (Southall 1975, 39-49). By 1960 slavery was generally no longer acceptable among trading partners. In this way colonial abolitionism, however gradual, contributed to the “modernisation” of labour institutions in Africa.

35 Colonial rule facilitated the import of capital into this capital-scarce continent. On Family Relationships. But only in mining, and to some extent in ways to quit, “settler” and “plantation” agriculture, did this happen on a large scale. The survey by Herbert S. Frankel (1938) of external capital investment in white-ruled Africa remains the only comprehensive study for the colonial period. According to Frankel, in gross and nominal terms, during 1870-1936 such investment totalled GBP 1,221 million, of which 42.8% was in South Africa. This meant GBP 55.8 per head in South Africa, but only GBP 3.3 in the French colonies and GBP 4.8 in British West Africa.

Public investment constituted 44.7% of the grand total and almost 46% of the non-South Africa total (Frankel 1938, 158-60, 169-70). Governments, and to some extent mining and plantation companies, invested in essay on family relationships, the transport infrastructure required for the development of, mainly, the export-import trade. In Nigeria and Ghana Africans also took a leading role in building motor roads and pioneering lorry services (Heap 1990). In institutional terms the colonial period saw the eventual abolition of human pawning, with its replacement by promissory notes and, in those areas of West Africa where it was possible, by loans on the security of cocoa farms. It also saw the introduction of essay modern banking, but the essay on family, banks were much more willing to accept Africans’ savings than to offer them loans, partly because of the colonial governments’ non-introduction of compulsory land titling (Cowen and Shenton 1991). 36 Like shipping and the export-import trade, banking in colonial West Africa had a strong tendency towards cartelisation (Olukoju 2001-02; Austin and Uche 2007). The initial imposition of colonial rule and boundaries itself disrupted intra-African networks of exchange, and the increasing presence of European merchants in the interior relegated many African traders further down the chain of intermediation between shippers and farmers (Goerg 1980; Nwabughuogu 1982). Organised resistance to European cartels mostly emerged later and was largely confined to particular colonies, given the tradition of cocoa “hold-ups” with which African farmers and brokers confronted successive European merchant cartels in Ghana and the indigenous banking movement in Nigeria (Miles 1978; Hopkins 1966). Thesis Planning In Pakistan. Until the advent of independence it remained the case in the “peasant” colonies that the markets dominated by Europeans were cartelistic, whereas the markets populated by on family, Africans were characterised by extreme competition (Hopkins 1978, 95). At least, much more than in the “settler” colonies, African entrepreneurs were able to operate in the export-import as well as in the domestic exchange sectors.

Though largely confined to the lower levels of the commercial pyramids, they benefited from the overall expansion of the economies, especially in West Africa (Hopkins 1995, 44). The monopolistic arrangements were shaken a bit by decolonisation (Austin and Uche 2007), but the old African sector became the “informal” sector, the old European sector the research paper, “formal” one (Austin 1993). At independence, new governments were faced with the familiar problems of this financial dualism, notably lack of cheap credit from the formal sector for informal enterprises. 37 Despite asymmetric competition, the more economically successful “peasant” colonies saw the continuation of a tradition of entrepreneurship and mostly (but not always) small-scale accumulation in agriculture, crafts and trade. Essay. The result, as John Iliffe (1983, 67) noted, was “a strong contrast between West Africa, with its long-established capitalistic sector and its entrepreneurs from artisanship and trade, and eastern and southern Africa, where entrepreneurs had emerged chiefly through (…) Western education and modern sector employment”. Early post-colonial policy did not always build on this, for example in the case of Ghana, with high taxation of export agriculture and the creation of State monopolies in certain sectors (Austin 1996b).

38 It is technology entrepreneurship phd thesis widely accepted that States have a critical role in essay on family relationships, economic development, at least in enforcing the planning in pakistan, rules of economic activity and providing physical public goods. Therefore, we should ask how colonial rule affected the historic constraint on political centralisation in Africa, namely the difficulty of raising revenue. Beyond this we need to consider the size of the State and on family relationships the nature of authority and legitimacy, i.e. whether colonisation was responsible for fragmenting Africa, as is often said, or whether, as the colonial rulers themselves claimed, they were a modernising force, bringing the State to the “Stateless” and entrepreneurship replacing patrimonial authority by bureaucratic authority. 39 Colonial administrations themselves suffered acute budgetary constraints. On Family. Although European empires introduced to Africa the possibility of raising loan finance (at least in english and creative degrees, an impersonal, law-governed though undemocratic way), the colonial administrations were restricted in their resort to money markets by the metropolitan insistence that each colony be fiscally self-sufficient and balance its budget. The introduction in each colony of a single currency as legal tender probably reduced net transaction costs (although in some cases the essay on family, demonetisation of thesis on family existing currencies hurt Africans holding them). But the metropolitan treasuries denied their colonial subordinates the autonomy to print money (Herbst 2000, 201-13).

The French colonies used the French franc. In British West Africa a colonial pound was issued, but the rules ensured that it was always convertible at par with the relationships, metropolitan pound. It was only at independence that the new African governments had the option of creating national currencies, an option the former French colonies mostly declined while the former British colonies soon accepted. 40 Given that they faced much the same practical constraints as the African States that had preceded them, colonial governments generally continued the reliance of pre-colonial kingdoms upon taxes on trade and people, rather than on land or agriculture. It was the above-mentioned discovery, during the Second World War, that the export marketing board could be a major revenue-raiser, which was the major fiscal innovation of colonial rule. As independence approached, this unintended consequence of technology entrepreneurship a wartime expedient offered African politicians unprecedented opportunities to, for example, transform educational opportunities for their populations. Essay Relationships. The marketing board as a fiscal instrument was an english and creative degrees important colonial legacy, and its possibilities and implications were only beginning to be understood. By the 1980s the limits of the device had become clear, as ordinary traders and producers could evade it by trading on on family relationships, parallel markets (Azarya and no gain essay writing Chazan 1987). 41 Smuggling brings us to one of the more notorious legacies of the essay, colonial partition of technology entrepreneurship phd thesis Africa: the imposition of boundaries dividing people of shared culture, the delineation of essay relationships some States so small as to be of questionable economic viability and the creation of some States so large as to be potentially ungovernable.

There is much in these criticisms, but recent research has shown that the borders were not necessarily so arbitrary in their origin and that at least some of them have subsequently acquired social reality and even popular legitimacy (Nugent 2002). Again, while the essay, colonial legacy includes several very small States, most colonies (even the small ones) were larger than the pre-colonial polities on which or in place of essay on family which they were imposed; and some of them formed parts of larger regional units (notably French West Africa). While the colonial borders have been largely preserved, colonial attempts to biographical narrative courage, introduce Weberian bureaucracy have proved much less durable (Bayart 1989). One reason for, or manifestation of, this is the salience of relationships ethnicity in most African countries for political competition over no pain no gain resources. 42 From the late 1970s onwards a generation of historians and anthropologists tended to argue that ethnicity in Africa, far from being “primordial”, was created, or at least greatly entrenched, by colonial strategies of “divide and rule” (seminal contributions included Iliffe 1979, 318-41, and Ranger 1983, although the thesis was pursued beyond those cautious initial statements). Recent historiography has shown that the emphasis on the capacity of colonial States to invent and manipulate traditions, including those relating to essay on family relationships, ethnicity and chieftaincy, was partly justified, but it underestimated the capacity of thesis planning African elites and peoples to influence the outcomes themselves (Spear 2003). By no means all ethnic divisions originated in the colonial period (Vansina 2001), although they were usually deepened and reified by the interaction of colonial and African elites (Prunier 1995).

Whatever the precise division of responsibility in this interaction, there is general agreement among scholars that ethnicity has been a more important organising principle of political association and relationships conflict since colonial rule than before it. Thesis On Family. This matters for economic development because ethnic divisions are often seen, by essay on family relationships, public opinion and by some economists (notably Easterly and Levine 1997), as primarily responsible for rent-seeking rather than growth-promoting policies in post-colonial Africa. However, that approach has been criticised on various grounds (notably by Arcand, Guillaumont and ways to quit smoking research Jeanneney 2000), and it is arguable that the salience of ethnicity in African political and economic life is as much a response to as a cause of the on family relationships, difficulties of enlarging the economic cake in African conditions and autobiographical community of the continued weakness of State capacity. 43 Amidst the varying and/or poor growth records of post-colonial African economies, Botswana has stood out. Daron Acemoglu, Simon Johnson and essay relationships James Robinson (2002a) argue that it is an exception that proves the rule, i.e. that while Botswana did not have the beneficial institutional legacy characteristic of the “full settler” colonies like Australia, it was exceptionally lightly ruled by Britain and english degrees as a result escaped the essay on family, worst of the no pain no gain writing, extractive propensities that they see as generally characteristic of non-“settler” colonialism. In my view two considerations point to essay on family, a different conclusion. First, without the discovery of diamonds, it is hard to paper on race community, see how post-colonial Botswana could have grown dramatically faster than colonial Bechuanaland. Indeed, during the first three decades of indendence the non-diamond mining sector of Botswana did no better than Zambia (Jerven 2008).

Second, British rule was relatively intense, rather than the opposite, in Bechuanaland. By the criterion of the essay relationships, number of Africans per administrator, circa 1937 it was fifth out of 33 African colonies (Richens, forthcoming). 44 The limited revenue-generating potential of African colonies (especially before some of the more spectacular mineral discoveries) helps to explain the decisions of the French and British governments, faced with rising popular expectations channelled into growing nationalist movements, to accept early decolonisation. Simultaneously French firms were apparently becoming less interested in colonial economies (Marseille 2005). If so, it is smoking research paper ironic that the French government remained closely involved with its former colonies after their independence, not least through the franc zone. Again, in the 1950s British firms on the spot expressed concern about their future under independent African governments, but they failed to attract much notice from the decolonising authorities (Tignor 1998; Stockwell 2000). The irony of the latter case is that a few years later the essay relationships, British government’s attitude to the Biafran secession was influenced by the interests of British oil companies (Uche 2008). 45 This article has considered the issue of colonial legacies in relation to the longer-term dynamics of economic development in what was in 1900 an overwhelmingly land-abundant region, characterised by simultaneous shortages of labour and capital, by ways, perhaps surprisingly extensive indigenous market exchanges, especially in West Africa, and by varying but often low levels of political centralisation. Colonial governments and European firms invested in both infrastructure and (especially in southern Africa) in institutions designed to develop African economies as primary-product exporters. In both cases the old economic logic for coercing labour continued to operate, i.e. the on family, continued existence of slavery in early colonial tropical Africa and the use of large-scale land grabs to promote migrant labour flows in “settler” economies. But there were changes and variations.

While we have noted differences between French and on family in pakistan British policy, for example in West Africa, the bigger contrasts were between “peasant” and essay on family relationships “settler” colonies. 46 In British West Africa in technology entrepreneurship phd thesis, particular there was a genuine coincidence of on family relationships interest between African farmers, European merchants and autobiographical research on race colonial governments in essay on family relationships, enlarging and exploiting West Africa’s comparative advantage in land-extensive agriculture. The resultant income at least enabled many of the slave-owners to become employers instead. In these cases the British government (and the French in Cote d’Ivoire after 1945) correctly recognised where their own self-interest lay when they supported African investment in export agriculture. On Family. It was in those “peasant” colonies that were best endowed with lands suitable for essay on family relationships producing the more lucrative crops that African populations experienced significant improvements in purchasing power and had the biographical narrative essay, most improvement in physical welfare.

In the same countries, however, colonial rulers, partly because of essay relationships fiscal constraints as well as a probably realistic assessment of the short-term economic prospects, did little directly to prepare the economies to autobiographical paper on race, move “up the value chain”. Thus, the essay on family relationships, first generation of post-colonial rulers presided over economies which were as yet too short of educated (and cheap) labour and sufficient (and sufficiently cheap) electricity to thesis on family planning in pakistan, embark successfully on industrialisation. It has taken post-colonial investment in education and other public goods to move West African economies, and tropical Africa generally, closer to the prospect of a substantial growth of on family labour-intensive manufacturing, if international competition permits it. 47 “Settler” colonies had a worse record for poverty reduction, especially considering the mineral resources of writing South Africa and Southern Rhodesia, but they had a better one for essay structural change. The large-scale use of coercion was the basis for the construction of white-ruled economies that, especially in to quit smoking paper, South Africa, eventually became profitable enough for a partly politically-impelled policy of import-substituting industrialisation to achieve some success. Essay On Family Relationships. Thus, the rents extracted from African labourers were channelled into structural change, although the process became self-defeating as it progressed, contributing to the fall of apartheid. 48 As promoters of market institutions, the colonial regimes had a very mixed record; but probably in technology phd thesis, all Sub-Saharan countries there was far more wage labour, and a lot more land sales, and a lot more people more deeply dependent on markets, by 1960 than there had been in 1890 or 1900. A final legacy of the colonial period has a rather unclear relationship to colonial policy, i.e. the on family, sustained growth of (total) population since 1918 has progressively transformed the factor ratios and, on autobiographical paper on race in your community, the whole, increased the long-term economic potential of the continent. Acemoglu, Daron, Simon Johnson, and James A. Robinson. 2001. The colonial origins of comparative development: An empirical investigation.

American Economic Review 91, no. 5: 1369-1401. Acemoglu, Daron, Simon Johnson, and James A. Robinson. 2002a. An African success story: Botswana. CEPR Discussion Paper 3219. London: Centre for Economic Policy Research. Acemoglu, Daron, Simon Johnson, and James A. Robinson. 2002b.

Reversal of fortune: Geography and institutions in the making of the modern world income distribution. Relationships. Quarterly Journal of Economics 117, no. No Pain No Gain. 4: 1231-94. Ajayi, J. F. On Family Relationships. Ade. 1969.

Colonialism: An episode in African history. Thesis On Family In Pakistan. In Colonialism in Africa, 1870-1960 , vol. 1, The history and politics of colonialism, 1870-1914 , ed. L. H. Essay. Gann and Peter Duignan, 137–46. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Amin, Samir. 1972. L’Afrique de l’Ouest bloquee . Paris: Editions de Minuit.

Arcand, Jean-Louis, Patrick Guillaumont, and Sylviane Guillaumont Jeanneney. 2000. How to courage, make a tragedy: On the essay relationships, alleged effects of autobiographical in your community ethnicity on growth. Journal of International Development 20, no. Essay On Family Relationships. 7, 925-38.

Austen, Ralph A. 1987. African economic history: Internal development and external dependency . London: James Currey. Austin, Gareth. 1993. Autobiographical Research In Your Community. Indigenous credit institutions in West Africa, c.1750-1960. Relationships. In Local Suppliers of Credit in the Third World, 1750-1960 , ed. Gareth Austin and Kaoru Sugihara, 93-159. London: Macmillan. Austin, Gareth. 1996a. Mode of production or mode of cultivation: Explaining the phd thesis, failure of European cocoa planters in competition with African farmers in colonial Ghana.

In Cocoa pioneer fronts since 1800: The role of relationships smallholders, planters and merchants , ed. W. G. Clarence-Smith, 154-75. Basingstoke, UK: Macmillan. Austin, Gareth. 1996b. National poverty and the “vampire state” in Ghana. Journal of International Development 8, no. 4: 553-73. Austin, Gareth. 2005.

Labour, land and capital in Ghana: From slavery to free labour in and creative degrees, Asante, 1807-1956 . Rochester: Rochester University Press. Austin, Gareth. 2007. Labour and land in Ghana, 1879-1939: A shifting ratio and an institutional revolution. On Family. Australian Economic History Review 47, no. 1: 95-120. Austin, Gareth. 2008a. Resources, techniques and to quit strategies south of the Sahara: Revising the factor endowments perspective on African economic development, 1500-2000.

Economic History Review 61, no. 3: 587-624. Austin, Gareth. 2008b. The “reversal of fortune” thesis and the compression of history: Perspectives from African and comparative economic history. Journal of International Development 20, no. 8: 996-1027. Austin, Gareth.

2009. Cash crops and freedom: Export agriculture and the decline of essay slavery in no gain writing, colonial West Africa. International Review of Social History 54, no.1: 1-37. Austin, Gareth. Forthcoming. Markets, slaves and States in relationships, West Africa . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Austin, Gareth, and Chibuike Ugochukwu Uche.

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1 The current names of former colonies are preferred in this essay, not least because until the 1930s “Gold Coast” did not correspond to what is now Ghana. However, “Southern Rhodesia” is used because “colonial Zimbabwe” is a contradiction in terms. “Belgian Congo” is essay on family used because of its clarity as there is more than one Congo today. 1 For a general account see Rimmer (1992, esp. 5, 228). 2 For Africanist commentaries see Austin (2008b) and Hopkins (2009). 2 The historiography is too complex to be summarised here. But it can be said that, although the motives for colonisation were not entirely economic (not least in the French and German cases), there were several links between the progress of industrialisation in Europe and the fact that, so late in the history of European overseas empire, the rival European powers finally “scrambled” for on family planning Africa. For instance, industrialisation reduced the costs of coercion and control, creating incentives for (in particular) those lagging within Europe to seek additional resources overseas (especially Portugal), while those dominating European trade with Africa had economic reasons to secure their position by extending it into annexation (Britain). 3 This is also the relationships, case for Madagascar, which is beyond the ways smoking, scope of the discussion here.

4 Gross national incomes in essay on family, PPP terms averaged USD 918 in the former British colonies and USD 1,208 in the former French ones. 5 In Katanga, in ways smoking research, contrast to South Africa, the black labour force was “stabilised” from the 1920s onwards, migrant workers being replaced with a smaller but better-paid permanent workforce. Their purchasing power provided part of the market for Congo-made manufactures (Fetter 1976, 110-5). 6 Actual GDP was surely greater because of the likely underestimation of the informal sector. This implies an even smaller share for modern manufacturing because the latter was all within the formal sector. 7 As of on family relationships 1950 Dakar’s electricity was the most expensive in the world (Boone 1992, 66, 67n).

3 For examples from each era respectively for Nigeria see Shea (2006), Wariboko (1998), Hopkins (1978) and Forrest (1994). Gareth Austin , « African Economic Development and Colonial Legacies », International Development Policy | Revue internationale de politique de developpement , 1 | 2010, 11-32. Gareth Austin , « African Economic Development and Colonial Legacies », International Development Policy | Revue internationale de politique de developpement [Online], 1 | 2010, Online since 11 March 2010, connection on 05 October 2017. URL : http://poldev.revues.org/78 ; DOI : 10.4000/poldev.78. Gareth Austin teaches African and comparative economic history, focusing on long-term economic development, at thesis planning in pakistan, the London School of Economics and Political Science.

Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 3.0 Unported License. 2017 7.0| 8.0 2016 7.1 2015 6.1| 6.2 2014 5.1| 5.2| 5.3 2013 4.1| 4.2| 4.3 2012 3 2011 2 2010 1. Electronic ISSN 1663-9391. Informations Title: International Development Policy | Revue internationale de politique de developpement Briefly: Peer-reviewed journal that promotes cutting-edge research and policy debates on relationships, global development.

Published by the Graduate Institute | Geneva, it links up with international policy negotiations involving Geneva-based organisations.

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Download a Resume Template That Employers Will Love. Are your Resume and online job search profiles not yielding you the results you need to find gainful employment and finally afford to pay your bills? No doubt about it; it’s tougher to find a job now than it’s been in essay decades. Thesis On Family In Pakistan? That doesn’t mean, however, that you can’t give yourself every fighting chance of snagging the next available job. While there is plenty to be said for effective interviewee skills, the absolute most important step for getting hired is writing a winning Curriculum Vitae. On Family? Without a highly attractive C.V, you’re just one of writing degrees dozens or more applicants that begin to essay on family relationships, blend together after a while. You want your most relevant skills and experience to jump off the page and grab the attention of the person responsible for reviewing the no pain no gain essay writing, group of CVs in which yours is essay on family, stacked or filed online. Direct access to biographical narrative, resume templates advices. 1. Essay On Family Relationships? Choose your favorite Curriculum Vitae. 2. Download selected resumes on your desktop. No front page content has been created yet.

How To Write a Winning Curriculum Vitae. Understand What Makes a Great Resume. Many job applicants are under a misconception that a great Curriculum Vitae means fluffing up terms, adding lots of jobs and experience, listing as many skills as possible, and engaging in other overkill tactics. No Gain? Excessive and irrelevant information only clutters the page and makes it more difficult to find the skills and information for which your prospective employer is essay on family, searching. The best resumes are those that are concise and specific to the job being sought.

As such, a separate resume should be used for each job if the required skills, education, and experience are different. At the end of this article, we will review a few time saving tips building each specific Curriculum Vitae. First, though, let’s take a look at paper, how to write a winning CV. Review All Job Description Material and More (If Necessary) While some employers seem to be in the habit of posting as little information as possible, others provide a great deal of essay valuable information relevant to english language and creative, not only the skills, experience, and education of a desired employee, but also the on family, description, expectations, and demands of the job itself.

Acquire as much information as you can about the research paper on race in your, position. If the employer provided you with pages and essay on family relationships pages of descriptions, read them before building your resume. If the employer posted minimal information about the job, you may find information by reviewing the website or even calling and asking for details. The more you know about your prospective employers, the more power you have to show them a picture-perfect employee on paper. If you read terms you don’t really understand, see requirements for technology phd thesis, education levels you haven’t reached, or find any other indication that you’re not a good candidate for essay, the job; don’t waste your time applying. Also, understand that it may be very difficult to find a job that matches your education or the bulk of no pain no gain your experience. You may have to essay on family, begin at an entry level position in a company that seeks supervisory and upper management applicants from within. If this is the technology, case, be extremely careful about divulging the extent of essay your education, experience, and salary history as you may be viewed as ‘overqualified’. Technology Phd Thesis? However insulting or degrading it may feel, the reality is that at some point you just have to accept that options are limited and essay relationships be willing to ‘dumb it down’ a bit to thesis planning, secure employment.

Just think, though: In the next few months after you’re hired, you’ll have a chance to excel beyond expectation and increase your odds of recognition and on family relationships promotion. Use Only Relevant Terms, Skills, and Experience. If you feel the need to add more information to your curriculum vitae than what’s absolutely relevant, make sure that the most compelling details are on the first page and that it’s not crowded with words. In addition to your contact information, you should have: Relevant skills, relevant experience, and relevant education. If you have multiple jobs dating back for thesis on family planning in pakistan, a number of years, try to list only the most relevant jobs within the past 5-7 years on the first page and either make a note that a more extensive job history is essay relationships, available upon request or attach a separate sheet with a complete history in case the reviewer is so inclined to biographical narrative essay, read it. Whatever you do, DO NOT let a full page of outdated and irrelevant details take away from the razzle and dazzle of the first page of your resume. Remember that your developed skills are more important than your experience. Yes, you need experience to demonstrate the fact that you’ve had time to hone those skills, but employers need to know the capabilities you have that are relevant to the job for which you’re applying.

The Verbiage of Your Curriculum Vitae. You want your C.V to sound professional, but it doesn’t have to sound like it came out of the Oxford Dictionary. Remember, it’s not as though you’re writing a dissertation; you’re listing bits and pieces of essay on family relationships concise and language and creative relevant information to present a snapshot of what you have to offer. Refer to the job description and other material posted by your prospective employers. On Family? If they used industry-specific jargon, use the essay courage, same jargon wherever applicable. Essay? Review their posted list of required skills and job duties and use it as a guide for phd thesis, listing all of your valid and applicable skills and on family job duties with previous employers. If you have additional skills or job skills than are not posted on narrative courage, the job description by essay on family relationships, your prospective employer, consider leaving them out. If you feel you must include them somewhere, follow the same rule as job history: Keep them off the first page. Instead, attach them at autobiographical research community, the top of the page containing your extensive job history. You have 2 primary goals for your curriculum vitae: Make it easy to read and make every word count. In order to accomplish this, you need to use a font of at least 10-12 and make each section of your document stand out from the on family, next by staggering blocks of information that take up different levels of horizontal space.

For example, you may place your name, physical address, phone number, and essay email address at the top in the center. For contrast, you would place a sentence outlining your objective; perhaps something like: To obtain consistent and long term employment with a company in which my skills and talents will be utilized and appreciated. Because that sentence will take the entire width of the page, your next sections should be small and centered. This would be a great place to list your skills. If you place your employment in the next section, that would be a great contrast to your skills. On Family Relationships? Make a table with 2 columns and a few rows (just enough for your most relevant jobs). Add your title, previous employers, and their contact information in the left column and thesis in pakistan your job duties on the right. On Family Relationships? Finally, underneath your employment history, enter your education information centered on the page. Employers may or may not be interested in speaking with your personal references. If there is any reason why your prospective employers shouldn’t speak with your previous supervisors, try to avoid putting their contact information on your Curriculum Vitae.

Otherwise, there should be plenty of professional references in your format for them to review. Essay Writing? You can post a sentence on the bottom of your Curriculum Vitae either inviting your potential employer to call contacts from essay on family relationships, your employment history and/or letting him/her know that you have a list of personal references available if requested. If you have room on the page after leaving plenty of space in thesis in pakistan between each section, increase the font size of your name. If you have adequate or advanced linguistic skills, consider writing a short cover letter (3-5 small to moderate paragraphs) introducing yourself and outlining your skills, dedication, ambition, work ethic, and relationships any other relevant piece of information that increases your appeal to an employer but may not have a proper place on technology, your Curriculum Vitae. Essay? Cover letters are easy to thesis in pakistan, disregard if an essay on family relationships, employer isn’t interested, and they can help to set you aside from other applicants if there is an interest in learning more about you by research, reading your cover letter. You can either use the outline provided in this article or you can create your own curriculum vitae outline containing your name, contact information, and relationships the basic sections you will need to fill out per no pain no gain application. Save the outline and consistent information in essay on family a master file, and once you’ve finished preparing a Curriculum Vitae for a job, choose ‘Save as’ and create a specific name for it. To find your Curriculum Vitae more quickly and conveniently, consider using the same name and changing only the last word. Ways To Quit Smoking Research Paper? For example, you may save your resume as ‘MyResumeCompany.doc’. Replace the word ‘Company’ with each different place to which you submit your curriculum.

How to Write a Great Cover Letter. Landing a job is undoubtedly difficult in today’s economy. Writing a great cover letter is probably the essay, most important step you can towards landing the job of their dreams. Why is writing a cover letter so important? It is the first thing a potential employer sees, and it will dictate whether or not the employer even looks at your resume. Even the essay courage, most polished, professional resume doesn’t stand a chance against a poorly written cover letter.

How do you write a cover letter that not only relationships a potential employer to read your resume, but also gets you invited for an interview? Writing a winning cover letter is not difficult if you follow a few simple steps: Just like an employer won’t look at a resume that’s attached to thesis on family planning, a poorly written cover letter, the employer won’t even bother to read the cover letter if it’s a messy jumble of text. Essay? To create a professional-looking cover letter, be sure to use plenty of no pain white space. On Family? You should have, at a minimum, one inch margins and double spaces between paragraphs. Follow the guidelines for writing a basic business letter and be sure to include a simple, text-only letterhead.

Your letterhead should be the no pain essay, same letterhead that appears on your resume. This is your one and only chance to name drop, so take advantage of it. Potential employers want to know how you heard about the essay relationships, position. Entrepreneurship Phd Thesis? You should also identify the specific position that you are seeking, and essay state that you are applying for this position. Yes, it’s obvious, but cover letters follow a long-established pattern, and this isn’t the time to be a rebel. Paper? Finally, set the tone for the rest of the letter, and essay relationships briefly state what you will be discussing.. If you have more than a few years of experience in the field to which you are applying, your professional experience should be presented before your educational experience. First, write a topic sentence that presents one unified idea. If you’ve held several jobs in this career, find the one aspect that these jobs have in planning in pakistan common that will most impress your potential employer. You also need to link this paragraph to your educational experience.

Similar to your employment paragraph, you need to develop one unified idea rather than simply presenting a list of all the schools you’ve attended and courses you’ve taken. Determine which aspect of your education is most important to the position you’re applying for and present it here. A fourth and essay on family relationships even fifth paragraph may be added if you need to present additional relevant information. Just remember to develop one idea per autobiographical paragraph, and to keep the entire letter under one page. This is your opportunity to tie everything together, leading the reader to invite you to essay, an interview.

You need to reference your resume and any other included attachments. Entrepreneurship? In addition, you need to politely, yet confidently state that you wish to be invited to an interview. Finally, state the essay relationships, easiest way for the employer to reach you, referring to autobiographical in your community, the phone number and e-mail address in essay your letterhead. For important documents like cover letters, you need to go beyond your computer’s spell check and grammar check. Place the cover letter aside for a few hours, or overnight if possible, and look at it with fresh eyes. Language And Creative Writing Degrees? You might find errors that you didn’t see previously. Relationships? As a final step, ask someone, who you trust will do a decent job, to proofread your cover letter. Now, you have a well-written cover letter that will hopefully lead a potential employer to read your resume and ultimately invite you to an interview. The rest is up to you! How to prepare for a winning job interview. In a competitive market for available jobs, potential candidates should put in the necessary time and effort to make a solid impact.

You must simply accept that it’s a buyer’s market, the buyer, in this case is the organization. Your first job as the seller is to sell yourself. You need to stand out from the other candidates like a house with a shiny red door in entrepreneurship a cookie-cutter neighborhood. Relationships? Assume your resume and cover letter is in a pile on language, a desk with plenty of others, therefore you must find a way to rise to the top. You need to essay, put yourself in a stronger position, instead of entrepreneurship phd thesis you trying to chasing the job, make them convince you to take it. Your mindset dictates the demeanor you portray. If you seem too desperate, you don’t make it to the next step, however, too arrogant and doors will close.

You have to put yourself in the shoes of the interviewer and determine your moves every step of the way. Spend about five hours preparing for each hour of interview, you want to investigate how you can deliver value to the organization. By researching and probing how you can make an essay relationships, impact in paper the position, you are going beyond the canned responses of most candidates. Your resume should announce that you are qualified for the position. After the interview, you want to leave the impression that you can start the job tomorrow. You want to contact somebody who does the same job at relationships, the organization or similar enterprise and no gain essay writing ask several questions. It’s a must that you discover the current challenges for the position within the organization and essay on family relationships the industry as a whole. The next step is succeed where so many candidates fall short, you want to show initiative by suggesting ideas for the position.

Hiring managers have so many job functions to perform, by proving that you not only did research concerning the position, but proposed suggestions, you show tremendous potential. You would be surprised how those that have been performing the job for no pain no gain, years have not expressed such aptitude. Be prepared to go beyond lip service, you want to on family, demonstrate the homework you have done. Reaching out to a current employee performing the same job function puts you over the top. Don’t be shy or feel like you are intruding. Many employees have innovative ideas about how to perform their jobs better, tap into that information for free and then add your own spin. Use the power of imagination to stand out from the crowd, everybody else is on family planning in pakistan, going to be following the same job interview tips that get recycled over the web. If you want to make a lasting impression, you must put in the sweat and effort. Find someone who you can practice with until it comes out natural.

Landing an essay on family relationships, offer in a tough economy requires considerable effort. If you can demonstrate you can make an impact in your interview, your name will rise to the top of the pack. Copyright Curriculum-Vitae.In 2013 - Contact : webmaster curriculum-vitae.in. All the no gain, Curriculum Vitae templates are at your disposal without any guaranty. The use of essay on family these Curriculum samples is at your sole risk.