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Anti Oppressive Practice Essays and Research Papers. unfair actions into illegal. For Essayedge! Antitrust laws protect anti -competitive behaviors and free-trade. Business Plan! If there is work, no competition for an existing . business, then it could draw off money out of the society and charge any price it wants. Essays Apartheid! In this situation a consumer doesn’t have a choice because the supplies are needed. Work For Essayedge! Not only Google was investigated under the Federal Trade Commission for unfairly restraining free trade but also under the Clayton Act for attacks, an anti -competitive behavior which was later found that.

Anti-competitive practices , Bing , Competition 1845 Words | 5 Pages. interest, particularly against firms abusing their dominant positions - A firm holds a dominant position if its power enables it to operate within the market . Work For Essayedge! without taking account of the phd dissertation, reaction of its competitors or of intermediate or final consumers. Work For Essayedge! Anti -Trust Policy - Abuses of a Dominant Market Position A firm holds a dominant position if its power enables it to operate within the market without taking account of the reaction of its competitors or of i was, intermediate or final consumers. Competition. Anti-competitive practices , Cartel , Competition 1668 Words | 5 Pages. had violated Section 2 of the Sherman Act. Work! By buying competitors and establishing exclusive dealing contracts with retailers, the government claimed that . Kodak was acting as a monopoly.

The 1921 decree barred Kodak from continuing with these practices . By 1954, Kodak enjoyed a 90% share of the color film market and papad plan a 90% share of the color photofinishing market at the same time. Because Kodak sold their color film only as a package deal with processing included in the price, the government. Anti-competitive practices , Competition , Marketing 1257 Words | 4 Pages. Economics of Competition Policy in India: Emerging Issues. concept that centres on the legislative aspect of boosting competition. It is the work, enactment of the competition policy and achieves its objectives in three . ways: (1) Prohibiting anti -competition agreements and papad practices that harm free trade and competition; (2) Preventing abuse of dominant position and anti -competitive practices that lead to such a dominant position; (3) Regulating mergers and acquisitions. Competition policy is a broad concept which harmonises all the work for essayedge, following public policies: *Foreign. Anti-competitive practices , Competition , Economic growth 1789 Words | 6 Pages.

Firms reproduced exactly what theory of game theory prescribe. Phd Dissertation! Abuse of dominant position Strategic behavior of firms. Very difficult in for essayedge, economics . terms. It is a big topic. Vertical relationships: Ex. Producer-retailer. Lot of anti -competitive practices (price squeeze: high prices for resources that are essential input to produce a good) Merger control Why do we examine mergers, what are economic examples. Ex. Online platforms: Euronex (meeting of business plan, buyers and sellers) Objectives. Anti-competitive practices , Cartel , Collusion 1585 Words | 6 Pages.

Enforcement and Compliance Office to investigate possible violations of WESM rules, as well as a Market Assessment Group (MAG). In other words, Reader, the work for essayedge, . WESM is supposed to papad business plan be scrupulously monitored. Question: Has there been any investigation for anti -competitive behavior or market power abuse in the history of WESM? Answer: Yes. For Essayedge! The first case was against the Power Sector Assets and Liabilities Management (PSALM) Corp., a government entity, which by the way, was the subject of all of the cases. Anti-competitive practices , Cost , Economics 1289 Words | 4 Pages. Discuss Broadly the Merger Assessment Techniques.

How Are They Applied? These include: exploiting economies of scale, diversification and of course increasing shareholder wealth. The reason for mergers are predominantly . monetary. These benefits can either be competitive or anti -competitive, when a collusion is anti competitive a governing body should intervene. Anti competitive behaviour would reduce the level of competition within a market, this could lead to do you indent paragraphs when exploitation of work for essayedge, consumers and workers. It would increase the inefficiencies within a market. A government.

Anti-competitive practices , Barriers to entry , Competition 1242 Words | 4 Pages. promoting the observance of standards of conduct for the purpose of student, ensuring compliance with the FCA. The FTC has the work for essayedge, power to carry out investigations . in an essay, relation to the conduct of business in Jamaica to determine if any enterprise is work for essayedge, engaging in practices that are in contravention of the Act. Such investigations may be self-initiated by the FTC or be carried out following a complaint. Essays! All investigations are carried out by for essayedge, the staff of the FTC. The FTC has the power to obtain any information that. Administration , Anti-competitive practices , Business 361 Words | 2 Pages.

Restrictive Trade Practices: Designed to Achieve Workable or Effective Competition. the reseller refuses not to resell the suppliers gs at less than a specified minimum price or because the reseller is likely to sell at below such a . price also is papad business, resell price maintanence * 3 steps involved in determining whether the practice of resell price maintanence has been engaged in 1. Has the supplier specified a price? 2. Is the price a minimum price? 3. Has the supplier taken action to ensure specified resale price is maintained? Recommended Retail. Anti-competitive behaviour , Anti-competitive practices , Competition 3951 Words | 15 Pages. Competition Law in Indian Pharma Sector. pharmaceutical industry from the perspective of competition law and work for essayedge policy.

Moreover there are apprehensions that some of the anti -competitive . practices go unscrutinised in India due to african a variety of reasons. Hence giving us good reasons to look into current state of competition prevailing in the pharmaceutical sector in for essayedge, India. To start with regulation of anti -competitive practices in pharma sector, to conserve poor and sick, there is no explicit provision or Fundamental right protecting right to good. Anti-competitive practices , Barriers to entry , Competition law 2967 Words | 9 Pages. INDIAN COMPETITION ACT The Monopolies amp; Restrictive Trade Practices Act, 1969 is the first enactment to deal with competition issues . and came into effect on student competitions 2014, 1st June 1970. Work! With the liberalization of the economy and the re-definition of the role of the when i was a baby essay, State and of the private sector in the Indian economy, competition policy in India and its governing legal-regulatory framework needed revisiting. For Essayedge! The MRTPA was limited in its efficacy and was found inadequate. Consequently, a comprehensive. Anti-competitive practices , Barriers to entry , Competition 3747 Words | 13 Pages. competitors set their strategies by paying close attention to essays how their rivals are likely to react. In these conditions, firms might differentiate their . products, which can benefit some consumers, but at a price.

Oligopoly inter-dependence can also foster anti -competitive coordination. Competition laws prohibit collusion that raises prices, restricts output or divides markets. But the work, laws do not prohibit conscious parallelism. Thus firms in an oligopoly might imitate their rivals’ pricing and plan other competitive. Anti-competitive behaviour , Anti-competitive practices , Collusion 144906 Words | 420 Pages. Ryanair, Aer Lingus and Barriers to work for essayedge Entry: Is the Merger the Problem or Just the Entities Involved? a Detailed Analysis from and Economic Perspective.

2004). If there is too great a time lag the merged entity may benefit from anti -competitive behaviour (such as setting prices above a . competitive level) for long enough to create a lasting negative effect before the geographie, competitor enters the market. As long as the for essayedge, returns on engaging in such activity are high enough to cover any switching costs and opportunity costs forgone, the student essay 2014, trade-off faced by the incumbent favors anti -competitive behaviour, if even only in the short-run, and the threat of potential. Aer Lingus , Anti-competitive practices , Barriers to entry 5572 Words | 16 Pages. Importance of E-Commerce in India and Competition Issue. Work! issues…………………………………………………………………..

5. E-commerce and geographie anti -competitive agreements………………………………………. 5.1 Excessive pricing in for essayedge, E-commerce . markets…………………………………………. 5.2 Collusion………………………………………………………………………………………….. 5.3 Factors that facilitate collusion in do you indent paragraphs when, E-commerce…………………………………. 5.4 Impact of E-commerce on nature of work for essayedge, vertical restraints …………………….. Do You Writing! 6. Credit Cards in India……………………………………………………………………………….. 7. Work For Essayedge! International interventions in credit cards market…………………………………..

7.1 Anti -trust cases in Credit cards…………………………………………………………. Anti-competitive practices , Competition , Competition law 10785 Words | 37 Pages. The Strategic Use of Tying to student Preserve and Create Market Power in Evolving Industries. totheMicrosoft 1. Introduction * A to of in markets, theseller product refuses sellA i.e., is practice many Tying a common B A . to product is referred unlesstheconsumer purchases (in thisscenario also to work for essayedge a consumer are such and Examples numerous, as IBM's famous as thetying product B as thetiedproduct). cardsfrom to tabulating machines also purchase of of purchasers itstabulating practice requiring with Due to Internet Explorer Windows. tothe more recent attempts bundle . Anti-competitive practices , Economics , Market failure 17416 Words | 268 Pages. Do You Paragraphs When! Having wiped out producers, these dominant firms will monopolise the work, industry. This in turn will lead to higher prices set by established monopolies, which . Papad Business Plan! will not be good for work for essayedge, consumers. This issue of aggressive price cut was described as anti -competitive behaviour and predatory pricing by the government. It is considered to student competitions be illegal in Australia and requires action against it. According to for essayedge , predatory pricing is essay competitions 2014, , whereas Coles had assured the government that it would absorb the price.

Anti-competitive practices , Cost , Marketing 732 Words | 2 Pages. Work For Essayedge! Understanding the Economics of the plan, Market Place. behavior may result in the maintenance of market share because it is efficient, even though it also happens to raise entry barriers. Competition authorities . sometimes face the difficult problem of determining which conduct is work for essayedge, pro-competitive and which is anti -competitive when both types of conduct would raise entry barriers. Ongoing with the example of exclusive dealing, it is frequently considered to promote competition and consumer welfare by supporting retailers to give better service and more information. Anti-competitive practices , Barriers to on south african entry , Competition 3613 Words | 11 Pages. Leeanne Norman Task 2 Anti -discriminatory practice Contents * An explanation of work, how national initiatives promote . anti -discriminatory practice (P4) * A description of essay, how ant-discriminatory practice is promoted in health and social care (P5) * An assessment of the influence of a recent national policy initiative promoting anti -discriminatory practice (M2) * A discussion of the difficulties that may arise when implementing anti -discriminatory practice in health and social care. Disability , Discrimination , Egalitarianism 2108 Words | 7 Pages. Anti-Oppression Practice for Refugees in work for essayedge, New Zealand. ? Anti -oppression practice for indent writing an essay, refugees in New Zealand Working with difference Essay . FSSC505 Donna Swift Karl Ross 3258312 Social Work 2014 5th May 2014 Word count: 1420 The number of refugees in the world is work for essayedge, increasing day by day. With wars between countries, religions and governments continuing, the attacks, number of displaced people on work for essayedge, our planet is staggering.

One of the most distressing realities is that most refugees are children. Young. Critical social work , International Federation of Social Workers , New Zealand 1486 Words | 4 Pages. ? Anti -discriminatory Practice Human rights act 1998 This is useful within the UK because lays down the law which every . individual is entitled too. These rights give us freedom. They may affect many things such as the rights to a baby live and work for essayedge the rights to die also the phd dissertation geographie, rights we use in everyday life.

National initiatives promote anti -discriminatory practice so issues are prevented from happening. Freedom from torture and work degrading treatment – This mean treatment causing severe mental or physical. Care of residents , Discrimination , Health care 1698 Words | 9 Pages. Indent! Anti-corruption practices in work, companies. implement the responsible partnership with the government which is aimed to the growth of living standards and economic development. The corruption which is . Business! rooted in the economic and work for essayedge social spheres bothers the successful implementation of these practices . It causes significant damage to essays on south african apartheid competition and complicates the work for essayedge, business environment. In this regard companies should perform a certain number of actions and measures to cope with the real and when a baby essay extensive threat.

The comparative efficiency of these. Bribery , Business ethics , Coca-Cola 2352 Words | 7 Pages. Equal Opportunities Anti Discriminatory Practice. Equal opportunities AntiDiscriminatory Practice Aims of the session ?Define the terms Equal Opportunities ?Define and for essayedge identify . Do You Indent Paragraphs Writing An Essay! stereotyping, prejudice and work for essayedge discrimination ?Identify appropriate legislation ?Suggest ways of creating a positive environment A few useful websites Commissions for racial equality www.cre.gov.uk Disability rights commission www.drc-gb.org National children’s Bureau www.ncb.org.uk UN convention on the rights of the child www.save_the_children.org.uk www.everychildmatters. Affirmative action , Disability , Disability Discrimination Act 1995 748 Words | 21 Pages. Phd Dissertation! ? ANTI -CORRUPTION IDEAS IN ACTION From Goudie, Burnett, Thayanthal, Anti -Corruption Kit: 15 Ideas for Young Activists, . Transparency International, 2014 Philippines: A Million New Inspectors About 1 million boy and girl scouts in Philippines have counted textbooks and work conducted quality inspections throughout the country. Working hand-in-hand with government and non-government agencies, the i was, programme discourages theft of textbooks and helps promote long-term transparency in for essayedge, the country’s schools. Bribery , Corruption , Election 931 Words | 3 Pages. Assessing social work practice using the PCF Integrated Critical analysis and reflective practice Critical reflection and . critically reflective practice are central to social work – indeed ‘Critical Reflection and Analysis’ is one of the nine domains of the when essay, PCF, with capability statements built into all levels. However, aspects of critical analysis and reflective practice are built into work for essayedge many domains within the PCF.

For example, how does a student social worker learn about ‘professional and. Critical thinking , Reflections , Scientific method 854 Words | 3 Pages. Anti Discriminatory Practice: Assessors Training Program. Assessors Training Programme Assignment: - Anti Discriminatory Practice Anti -discriminatory . practice underpins all good practice as it seeks to prevent the division and oppression created and student essay 2014 legitimised by individuals, groups and organisations, divisions that include class, race, gender, age, disability and sexual orientation. Work! These divisions are often accepted as the norm and are then perpetuated unwittingly. Good anti -discriminatory practice requires competent workers to be aware of discrimination. Phd Dissertation Geographie! Assessment , Candidate , Competence 914 Words | 3 Pages. Anti-Trust Practices and Market Power. designed to prevent monopoly and promote competition. On June 23, 2011, the U.S. Federal Trade Commission initiated an antitrust probe into Google, the work for essayedge, . world’s largest search engine.

FTC’s investigation entailed a broad probe into i was a baby essay Google’s business practices and weather it was abusing its search power to drive traffic to for essayedge its own properties over do you paragraphs when writing rival sites and services. Work! After a nearly twenty month high-profile investigation, the federal government announced on January 3, 2013, that its dropping an “exhaustive”. Cartel , Competition , Competition law 769 Words | 3 Pages. I Was! regularly gets involved. My local primary school does not want to recognize the needs of the 40% Muslim children dietary needs even after highlighting the for essayedge, . Phd Dissertation Geographie! issues; there is no choice but to accept vegetarian meal. The key features of anti - racist social work practice should be not to discriminate people based on their colour of skin or ethnicity. Practitioners should know how to recognize racism. They should be culturally aware and any assumptions are checked out for essayedge which could cause stereotyping.

For. Black people , Discrimination , Human 616 Words | 2 Pages. Difficulties That May Arise When Implementing Anti-Discriminatory Practices. JANET LAWAL P5 HOW ANTI -DISCRIMINATORY PRACTICE IS PROMOTED IN HEALTH AND SOCIAL CARE SETTINGS ETHICAL PRINCIPLES In health . and social care sector, health care professionals take into phd dissertation account four key ethical principles when providing service to the service users. The key ethical principles are justice, autonomy, beneficence and work non-maleficence.

In health and social care settings people must be treated fairly without being judgemental regardless of who they are or where they come from. Health. Clinical officer , Ethics , Health 1438 Words | 5 Pages. in social work practice , one of the first things to african apartheid understand is what our values are, Thompson (2000) states that One of the significant . For Essayedge! features of values is that we tend to become so accustomed to our own values and essays african apartheid beliefs that we do not recognise that they are there or how they are influencing us. An important step, then, is to be clear about what our values are. Work! Thompson (2000,pp33) I will discuss both the do you indent, personal and professional values that influence social work practice and discuss a particularly. International Federation of Social Workers , Social justice , Social work 1598 Words | 5 Pages. Global Essay Oppressive Clothing March 2011 Women have been faced with many challenges throughout history. A major example of this would . be the fight for women’s rights and equality. Work For Essayedge! Women worked and worked to attempt to essay 2014 gain equality with men and eventually triumphed. However, another challenge that women had to work face was oppressive clothing and essays on south fashion. Work! The corset, the practice of indent paragraphs writing an essay, foot binding, and work for essayedge hijabs were all massive parts of oppressive fashion.

Each served a specific purpose, but hindered. 19th century , Clothing , Foot 1060 Words | 3 Pages. ? Practice Problems PARTI: MULTIPLE CHOICE 1. The CPI index: A. Is usually highly correlated with the i was a baby, GDP deflator B. Measures the . price of a consumption basket; the GDP deflator, instead, measures the cost of a basket of locally produced goods C. Is sensitive to work for essayedge the high volatility of the price of food and energy D. All of the above 2. Looking at the composition of GDP in competitions, the last 50 years, we can claim that: A. Both in India and the US the consumption share has been converging to. Balance of work, payments , Balance of trade , Capital accumulation 1864 Words | 6 Pages. Analysis of practice dilemma This essay will be examining a case study in relation to an older adult who wants to return to his country of . birth. His daughter is opposed to phd dissertation geographie him doing so and these conflicting views therefore become a practice dilemma. For Essayedge! According to Parrott (2011) a dilemma involves the drone attacks essay, social worker “being presented with two equally unpalatable alternatives”.

There are no easy resolutions but the work, element of papad plan, risk becomes an for essayedge important factor to consider. The notion of plan, risk will. Ethics , International Federation of Social Workers , Social work 2484 Words | 7 Pages. Edr P4 Explain How National Initiatives Promote Anti-Discriminatory Practice. EDR P4 – Explain how national initiatives promote anti -discriminatory practice . What is work for essayedge, Legislation? The process of making or . an acting law. Do You Indent Paragraphs An Essay! There are a number of different acts in Legislation, these include: Sex discrimination act 1975 This act applies for for essayedge, both men and women. It promotes that both men and women should be treated equally.

For example in transport, education, jobs, equal pay etc. It promotes anti -discriminatory practice by making sure that men and indent paragraphs writing an essay women are treated equally. Discrimination , Economic, social and cultural rights , European Convention on Human Rights 1916 Words | 6 Pages. ?I am going to write how the legislation and code of work for essayedge, practice or charter promotes diversity. Anti - discriminatory . practices It is the responsibility of the when i was a baby, institution or organisation to make sure that service users and service providers feel safe and protected, so they can receive the help they need in the most supportive environment possible. They can do this by work for essayedge, ensuring everyone follows non-discriminatory practice by putting in place policies and african other procedures and work for essayedge making sure they are being. Ageism , Discrimination , Gender 422 Words | 2 Pages. Policy in essays on south african, a helping organisation the importance of for essayedge, equal opportunity and anti-discriminatory practice. on are Women’s Aid as the national organisation and student 2014 Telford and Wrekin’s Domestic Violence / Women’s Refuge as the local organisation.

They both have many . policies designed to safeguard and protect. I am primarily looking at the policy of good practice . Women’s Aid aims to work for essayedge “To increase safe choices for women and children experiencing domestic violence where substance misuse is also an issue To raise awareness and standards in refuge organisations, outreach and papad plan other services To encourage. Abuse , Affirmative action , Child abuse 1135 Words | 4 Pages. ? ANTI -DISCRIMINATORY PRACTICE (link) Underpinning Values DIGNITY PRIVACY CHOICE SAFETY COFIDENTIALITY INDIVIDUALITY RESPECT . EQUALITY DIVERSITY ACCOUNTABILTY Equality Act 2010 http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2010/15/contents The Equality Act 2010 replaced previous anti -discrimination laws with a single piece of legislation to for essayedge make the law simpler and remove inconsistencies. It covers nine so-called ‘protected characteristics’ which cannot be used as a reason to treat people unfairly. These are. Civil liberties , Discrimination , European Convention on Human Rights 264 Words | 2 Pages. Know How Anti Discriminatory Practice Is Promoted in Health and Social Care Settings. Know how anti discriminatory practice is promoted in health and social care settings The active promotion of . Essay! anti -discriminatory practice Ethical principles There are four main ethical ideas that should be taken into for essayedge account in the health and apartheid social care sector. They are: * Justice - People must be treated fairly and equally regardless of their background. * Autonomy - A person’s choice must be respected. Work! * Beneficence - This involves risks and costs; the health care professional. Health care , Individual , Individual rights 888 Words | 3 Pages.

Socrates and business the Anti -Democracy The trial, determination of guilt, and eventual death of Socrates, one of the work for essayedge, paramount philosophers in . history, on the charge of essays apartheid, “corrupting the young and of not believing in work, the gods in whom the papad, city believes” (Plato 24c) in Athens, perhaps the work, most famous freedom-loving, democratic city-state of the Western world, is puzzling. Papad! In his earlier days, Socrates was once seen as an eccentric headmaster of work, a school of phd dissertation, thinking, a harmless character wandering the streets. Ancient Greece , Athenian democracy , Classical Athens 903 Words | 3 Pages. Choose 3 of Your Direct Observations Carried Out in Your Plo. Using These as the Context, Produce a Critical Reflection on What You Have Learned About Your Own Practice. Work! out in your PLO.

Using these as the context, produce a critical reflection on what you have learned about your own practice . The purpose of . Indent Paragraphs An Essay! this assignment is to critically reflect on for essayedge, how effective my practice is by analysing my own direct work with service users and colleagues whilst on in pakistan essay, placement at a children’s home. It is vital for me to be able to reflect on my own practice as I can adapt how I think, feel and for essayedge behave in order to better meet the papad, needs of service users. This statement is agreed. Critical social work , Critical thinking , International Federation of work for essayedge, Social Workers 1749 Words | 4 Pages. Phd Dissertation Geographie! community work as I engaged in educational non-profit mission in Korea community to improve the quality of education in primary schools. Based on my own . practice , I realized that helping local people should be more effective, usable and accessible to work for essayedge the plan and initiatives. The community work function is recognised a part of professional practice of teachers, social workers, the clergy, health workers, architects, planners, administrators and others (Criaig 2008). White (2003) insists that the use. Community , Community economic development , Community practice 1769 Words | 6 Pages. ? Analysis Of Anti Hacking Techniques Computer Science Department, Mahamaya Technical University, Noida, Uttar Pradesh-201309 Abstract - . Anti -Hacking is a topic that should incorporate not only the tools to geographie defend against for essayedge black- hats but the knowledge to attacks understand what the black-hat sees when he looks at a network. Anyone that connects to the Internet is at risk of having his or her machine compromised. And now, in the age of always on connections for even the home user, the threat to computer.

Black hat , Computer , Computer security 2123 Words | 4 Pages. Mitchell Canaday Prof. Work For Essayedge! Brininstool Eng 131 The Anti - Anti -Bullying Campaign There are few things that people can agree on . when it comes to bullying in the school or the workplace. It was only papad plan recently that people have seen bullying as anything but a childhood rite of passage. In the work for essayedge, past four years, all but two states in America now have anti -bullying laws that provide criminal punishment for students and drone attacks essay adults that violate these laws [1]. For Essayedge! Many people in America see these laws as a step. Abuse , Bullying , Scapegoating 1045 Words | 3 Pages. ? Anti -trust laws in the United States have been effectively used to prevent monopolies in industries like telecommunications, oil and gas and essays . computer software. Anti -trust laws are enforced in work for essayedge, order to maintain free competition in the marketplace, which generates lower prices and incentivizes the development of high quality products.

Today, hospital systems are experiencing an essays era of heavy consolidation, which include mergers and acquisitions and work physician practice buy-outs. According to the Wall. Drone In Pakistan Essay! Competition , Competition law , For-profit hospital 1165 Words | 4 Pages. Inclusive Practice is a term which means the practical things that we do, when we are working with people who use our services, which . demonstrate our professional values, standards, and principles in action. In particular Inclusive Practice is for essayedge, about participation, collaboration, and including people: where individuals are fully involved in i was a baby essay, choices and decisions that affect their lives and in the matters that are important to them. People who use mental health services say that being listened to. Work For Essayedge! Education , Educational psychology , Learning 889 Words | 3 Pages. and equitable trade and business practices . Businesses have been competing among one another since the industrialization of the United States . of America. However, with competition came regulation for business and trade. A Competitive America As Americans we love to compete. Therefore it is phd dissertation, no wonder that the United States economy is work for essayedge, based on competition.

Promoting competition is do you when writing an essay, accepted as the best way to promote consumer well-being. America’s anti -trust laws have been in place for. Business , Capitalism , Cartel 1184 Words | 10 Pages. ?Jessica Morris 9/2/2012 EN 106 Instructor Kerry Jones Oppressive Education Paulo Freire was a Brazilian educator, philosopher, and . Work For Essayedge! influential theorist of critical pedagogy. He is student competitions 2014, best known for his influential work, Pedagogy of the Oppressed, which is considered one of the foundation texts of the critical pedagogy movement. The Banking Concept of Education, New York: Continuum, 1993 which was translated by Myra Bergman talks about an authoritarian way of teaching. Work! In the essay, The. Critical pedagogy , Education , Oppression 744 Words | 3 Pages. D2: Justify Ways of Overcoming Difficulties That May Arise When Implementing Anti-Discriminatory Practices in Health and Social Care Settings.

Justify Ways of Overcoming Difficulties That May Arise When Implementing Anti -Discriminatory Practices in Health and attacks Social . Care Settings. Try to work for essayedge find a case study to back up claims Difficulties will always arise when trying to implement any new policy in student essay competitions 2014, an establishment, however some of the difficulties are easy to get over and some of them require more effort but eventually the promotion of for essayedge, anti -discriminatory practice should be taking place in all places of essays african apartheid, work. When people have different upbringings. Adultism , Discrimination , Racism 1243 Words | 3 Pages. This essay will discuss my values and those used in social care practice , sociological and psychological influences regarding discrimination . and anti -discrimination. The meaning of discrimination and anti -discriminatory practice and to identify and describe three pieces of legislation designed to promote anti -discriminatory practice . Values and beliefs are about what a person finds important to you; what a person believes to be right and wrong. Work For Essayedge! Values are usually learned by primary socialisation. Adultism , Affirmative action , Discrimination 1752 Words | 6 Pages. Papad Plan! Evaluate the importance of anti oppressive practice in social work.

Illustrate your answer using the PCS model. . Within this essay the areas in which discrimination and oppression occur will be highlighted and then evaluated to show how ‘good’ anti oppressive / discriminative practice within social work can ‘aid’ and empower service users who are in groups that experience oppression and discrimination to overcome their problems. Gil (1994) states that “the conditions that cause people to seek help. Discrimination , International Federation of Social Workers , Oppression 2982 Words | 9 Pages. ?RABIA AYDINKAYA 1910942 SECTION: 34 ANTI SOCIALIZING With the development of the work for essayedge, technology, people’s perspective on life has also been . changing. Essays African! People think that they are getting social thanks to the widely used networking sites; in fact they are doing the opposite unconsciously. People began to share the moments of their lives such as the places they visit, the meals they eat; in general, what they do, who they are with. People desire to be appreciated for their status updates by getting so many. Facebook , Social network aggregation 904 Words | 3 Pages. SOCIAL CARE THEORY FOR PRACTICE (OUTCOME 1) ASSESSMENT 1 (1500 words approx.) (12th October 2012) Coco J Hendry Page 1 Introduction . Page 2 – 5 Assessment Page 6 Conclusion Page 7 Reference/Bibliography 1 The following essay will demonstrate my understanding of the importance and relevance of values to social care by explaining how social care values and principles influence practice . I will then explain what relationship my value base has with social care values. Disability Discrimination Act 1995 , Discrimination , Prejudice 1421 Words | 5 Pages.

Jewel and Esk College 11 Social Care Theory for Practice Assessment 1 Outcome 1 ALISON HERRIOT Values 1) The values that I hold at for essayedge, . Attacks In Pakistan! this point in my life have developed over the years there have been many influences like family, friends, work, and for essayedge my life experiences have played a part in the development of these values. Values are a guide that I feel I need to african apartheid have in order for me to continue my life in work, the right direction and be as happy as it can be. Papad Plan! These are some of the values and. Discrimination , Egalitarianism , Ethnic group 1609 Words | 6 Pages. oppressive government is more desirable than no government at all. ?Debate: An Oppressive government is more desirable than no government at all Argument: An oppressive government provides safety . and asylum while man in a natural state without government is not assured these things, and is also therefore denied peace. A government, however oppressive , provides safety and justice. Man is in a natural state of war and, as Hobbes said, In a state of nature there are continual fear and work danger of violent death, and the life of man solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and. Government , Oppression , Political philosophy 1535 Words | 4 Pages. In William Shakespeare’s Hamlet, the main character, Hamlet, can be considered an Anti -hero. An Anti -hero is best described as . the protagonist of a story who does not maintain all of the same qualities that a conventional hero would.

For example, an Anti -hero can be rude, violent, and motivated only by their own needs, as well as lacking heroic qualities such as courage, nobility, and fortitude. A good Anti -hero will also draw sympathy from the audience/reader, as is the case with Hamlet. Throughout. Antihero , Character , Characters in Hamlet 787 Words | 3 Pages. ?National initiative for anti -discriminatory practice Legislation promotes anti -discriminatory . practice by making it unlawful to discriminate against particular social groupings also policies, procedures, conventions and/or regulations are implemented within health and i was essay social care settings to ensure the promotion of equality and anti -discriminatory practice . There are many different legislations such as: European convention on work for essayedge, human rights and fundamental freedoms 1950 Sex discrimination act 1975. Children Act 1989 , Civil liberties , Discrimination 810 Words | 3 Pages. McCurry English 101 Professor Haviland 16 October 2014 Anti -Bullying Campaigns Anti -bullying campaigns are presented everywhere . from the televisions in homes to assemblies in schools. As a result, thousands of young people all across America are lavished with benevolent ideals as a quick fix to an incomprehensible issue. With society's extreme pressures to end bullying, one would have to wonder: why has bullying not ended? The goal behind anti -bullying campaigns are that those viewing these presentations.

Abuse , Bullying , Psychological abuse 916 Words | 4 Pages. THE OFFICE OF THE CENTRAL STEERING COMMITTEE FOR ANTI -CORRUPTION |THE SOCIALIST REPUBLIC OF VIETNAM Independence – Freedom – Happiness | | . SOME BASIC INFORMATION ABOUT The Central Steering Committee for Anti -Corruption The Central Steering Committee for Anti -Corruption established according to the Resolution 1039/2006/NQ-UBTVQH of August, 28, 2006, of the Standing Committee of the XIst National Assembly of The Socialist Republic of Vietnam. I. Position and functions of the. Cabinet , Committee , Inspection 840 Words | 4 Pages. Concepts of Discriminatory and i was essay Anti Discriminatory Practice. Equality, Diversity and Rights Concepts of discriminatory and anti -discriminatory practice M1: There are many different . type of discriminatory practice in the health and social care work place, they can be obvious, subtle and even unintentional. Work! Covert and overt abuse of power is where a superior of any form would discriminate against a person of drone attacks, lower class or of a lower rank. Covert abuse is work for essayedge, abuse where the person is not fully aware they are being abused or when the abuser is not carrying. Abuse , Child abuse , Physical abuse 573 Words | 2 Pages. Assess the Influence of a recent National Policy initiative promoting Anti- discrimination practice. ?Assess the Influence of a recent National Policy initiative promoting Anti - discrimination practice . 1. Service users suffered . gross neglect such as little or no support to wash and shower, left for hours in wet and dirty beds and refused to help.

Also service users are forced to share rooms. (Care Standards Act 2002) To prevent neglect of the service users the writing an essay, manager can employ more staff, to work make sure the care home is not under staffed because if there are not enough staff, then service users. Dementia , Disability Discrimination Act 1995 , Discrimination 1041 Words | 3 Pages. Genetically Modified Organisms argue that the methods and indent paragraphs writing an essay practices of Genetic Modification are nothing new. They make the claim that people . have manipulated foods and crops for thousands of years through classic selection methods and other agricultural practices . “The proponents of for essayedge, such technologies claim that bio-engineering of food is absolutely safe and it is similar to what has been happening through traditional agriculture practices .” (Mohajer 113). On South African! Experts in the field of Genetic Modification.

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HSC Ancient History Part 1: Core Study – Cities of Vesuvius – Pompeii and Herculaneum. Situated in the Gulf of Naples in the Campania region and located between the ports of Misenum and Stabiae. Was a seaside town located north of for essayedge Vesuvius. Fresco from a household shrine in the House of the Centenary entitled “Bacchus and drone in pakistan Mt Vesuvius” Vesuvius a symbolises fertility (fertile land) and wine (as evidenced by the grapes) as Bacchus is the work, god of drone in pakistan essay fertility and work wine. Do You When Writing. Snake is work for essayedge a further symbol of fertility as we can view it as a phallic symbol The olive leaves symbolise agriculture The bird symbolises nature Thus, the fresco reveals information about the african apartheid, geographical resources of Pompeii and Herculaneum as well as giving a brief insight into some religious views.

Pliny the Elder, Natural History. “A region blessed by fortune” “warm springs” “shellfish” “Gods of work for essayedge wine and grain” “fine harvest” “nowhere do olives produce more oil” “shaded with green vines” “famed grapes filled the dripping vats” “[Herculaneum] was made glorious by the name of Hercules” b. Attacks Essay. Plans and streetscapes of Pompeii and Herculaneum. The town of Pompeii covered an area of 66 ha surrounded by defensive walls. For Essayedge. It is irregularly shaped and built on papad business, terrain that slopes from 10 meters up to 40 meters above sea level. Over time, four main areas were developed that were heavily influenced by the Greek principles of urban planning: The forum The insulae or blocks fronting the Via Stabiana Region VI The eastern area The earlier areas were those developed around the Forum and Via Stabiana insulae The grid pattern, developed in work for essayedge other Roman towns, was not precisely applied to Pompeii. The Greek influence can be seen in the regular layout of the when i was essay, streets and roads and divided the towns into insulae The blocks varied in size from 850 – 5500 m 2 Some contained only one house while others contained a dozen or more. Herculaneum followed the classical layout of Greek towns with narrow straight streets that divide the town into insulae. Walls The fortifications of Pompeii are its walls that surround and work enclose the city with a perimeter of 3.2 kms.

The walls have been restored a nd reconstructed on numerous occasions due to the effect of do you when writing military battles that effected the work, city. Student 2014. Seven gates open in the walls and many speculate the for essayedge, existence of an eighth “Porta Capua”. Herculaneum had a sea wall, with large vaulted chambers for boats. I Was A Baby Essay. The oldest circle of wall dates back to the 6th Century BC and was made from blacks of work for essayedge lava and a malleable volcanic stone. Essay Competitions. By the first half of the work, 5th century BC a new town had replaced the old one. The new fortification (possibly due to Greek influence) was constructed by geographie a double parallel ring of walls.

Around the end of the 4th century BC,. The old fortifications were partially replaced by a new one built on approximately the same line as the previous one and made of for essayedge square blocks of sarno limestone. The main reason for essays apartheid the restructuring of the fortifications was the need to prepare the city against the incursions of the Carthaginans led by Hannibal (218-201 BC) The single ring of walls was replaced by work a double ring with a new wall in tuff from Norcea, built on the embankment, while the external ring was increased in height. Between the on south african apartheid, two rings of wall, a communication patrol trench was created, accessible by work means of special ‘sloping steps’ , still partially visible in the section of fortifications near the Porta Ercolano Gate. The last intervention on the walls was undertaken around the student essay 2014, period of the Social Wars (late 2nd regular intervals, and for essayedge covered in fake marble blocks of phd dissertation plaster as in the early style. The quadrangular towers had two access points: one from the base on work for essayedge, the inside of the ring of walls and one from above the do you indent when writing an essay, patrol trench. Gates City gates were positioned at the end of the main thoroughfares The most impressive examples of Gates at Pompeii are the Marine Gate and the Herculaneum Gate Streets Streets in Pompeii are extremely varied, some built with solid Roman engineering and underlain with water conduits; some dirt paths; some wide enough for two carts to pass; some alleys barely wide enough for pedestrian traffic. There are many different names for the dissimilar types of streets in work both Herculaneum and Pompeii.

The main highway that leads from Pompeii’s main gate is call the Via dell’Abbandanza. The Via dell’Abbandanza is one of the main Decumani running the length of the town, east to west. The Cardines run north to south, both meet at right angles. Roads The Pompeian road network is- in itself- a reflection of the nascent origins and development of the phd dissertation geographie, city. Emanating from the forum, the streets of early Pompeii are not geometrically aligned , however later Pompeian districts have a more organized infrastructural road system containing main axial highways “decumani” which are perpendicularly crossed by minor streets known as “cardini” giving rise to isolated blocks “insulae”- such are occupied by more than one house, or in some circumstances a single house or public building. Pompeian roads are comprised by a carriage way, paved with large, polygonal blocks of basalt, edged by pavement generally higher than the road itself. The roads were reinforced by kerbs made of lava, limestone or tuff – some of which preserve the work for essayedge, marks of Oscan stonecutters. Another observation that can be made from Pompeian roads is the logically placed holes on essay competitions, the edge of pavements, thought to hold posts which support street stalls or sunblinds, and in some instances are hypothesized to transport animals.

In order to facilitate pedestrian crossing and to protect their feet from rainwater and work for essayedge sewage which flow through the carriageway, there are ovoid shaped stepping stones placed between two pavements which were made from the same materials as the road surface, and were generally needed in areas close to entrances of buildings. Traffic Situation There are deep grooved marks in the streets of Pompeii due to the heavy volume of business plan traffic that use the streets, both pedestrians and wheeled carts. Herculaneum- the traffic is essentially non-existent. Drainage With the exception of the forum- Pompeii has no drainage network, causing the dirty runoff and sewage to run into the streets. However, the streets are built on an incline and the water flows out of the city towards open outlets at the foot of the city walls. There are large slabs of work larva on the streets allowing pedestrians to cross the road in a civilized manner and not step in sewage or run off from rain. Drone Attacks Essay. Herculaneum has a more advanced and adequate sewage system.

Street Wolves The streets of Pompeii are sometimes a dangerous place for the youth. For Essayedge. Street wolves are notorious in Pompeii, they were predators who sometimes molester the pedestrians. Papad Business Plan. The youth to wear a purple stripe on work for essayedge, their robes to identify those too young for incarceration. Lighting at Night The Pompeians used lamps of terracotta, bronze, iron, glass or even gold for lighting the most common type being a container of phd dissertation oil which was lit with fire, with a neck from which the wick emerged for the light, a hike for the fuel and a handle for holding the lamp. The lamps are often decorated various planets, gladiatorial contests, horse races, erotic scenes, theatrical masks, animals and plants. Candle sticks are also a popular form of lighting often bronze with a long neck. Because of the cost of bronze the candle sticks were are an important element of the work, home, used on essays on south, mental pieces and in the dining room. The lamps are used in all forms of life, streets, theatres and public baths.

Fountains The public water fountains- nymphea- flow day and work for essayedge night for the consumption of the public, however some do have taps to regulate the i was a baby essay, flow. Work For Essayedge. Public water fountains are conveniently located at many street corners – meeting the needs of the population. The fountains have been strategically placed about 70 meters apart so that the citizens can always count on a supply of water near their homes. There are roughly 40 fountains in Pompeii and they vary little in form. The fountains they have a rectangular basin made of four stone slabs usually lava, joined by iron cramps. Phd Dissertation. Water is transported by a lead pipe and gushes out of a decorative spout. The town’s water supply is brought from the springs of the Acquaro River by the Serinum aqueduct and the water is then distributed from the work, castellum aquae (water tower) situated at the highest point in the town near the Vesuvian Gate. The water pressure is business plan made through a downward flow through the underground pipe leading all through town, the work, public bath houses are a prime example. The water supply also allows more wealthy patrons to access a private water supply. 2. The nature of sources and evidence.

Pliny the Younger: Two letters , written 25 yrs after the eruption, to Historian Tacitus, describing the events that took place, his Uncle’s death, and his personal reaction to the eruption. Geological evidence supports his account as well as its corroboration with modern historians. However accounts are limited to Misenum and Stabiae rather than Pompeii and Herculaneum He himself acknowledges his limitations as he states “for it is one thing to write a letter, another to write history.” Vitruvius 1 st Century Architect, Manual on a baby essay, Architecture “Of Architecture” Limitations: 27 AD, his depiction of for essayedge Greek and Roman houses did not always correspond to paragraphs writing, archeological evidence Bias towards some paintings as he didn’t like the contemporary styles Writes mostly about houses: “the houses of bankers and work for essayedge farmers of the revenue should be more spacious and imposing and safe from burglars” “Advocates and professors of when i was essay rhetoric should be housed with distinction, and in for essayedge sufficient space to accommodate their audiences” Pliny the Elder 37 books in his “Natural History” He is deemed reliable as he is the only ancient writer to cite his sources Limitations: his work is known to be contradictory, uncritical and uneven. Competitions 2014. Writes descriptions of the work for essayedge, Campania region: “A region bessed by fortune” “warm springs” “shellfish” “Gods of wine and grain” “fine harvest” “nowhere do olives produce more oil” Cassius Dio Writes in his “History of student Rome” Details of the eruption: “all the while an inconceivable quantity of ash was being blown out; it covered both sea and land and filled all the for essayedge, air” “people fled, some from their houses into essays on south, the streets, others from outside indoors” Martial A poet, writes in work for essayedge his “Epigram” Details the effects of the eruption: “It all lies buried by flames and mournful ash” Strabo Writes about Geographical issues in his “Geography” “This area appears to have been on fire” Seneca Writes in his “Naturales Questiones” Describes the Earthquake in phd dissertation geographie 62 AD “That devastated Campania” and “a flock of work 600 sheep perished” Mostly archaeological evidence Herculaneum was skeletons (preserved under 20 meters of ash) At Pompeii, plaster casts were found from papad plan hollows left by organic material which rotted. Carbonisation is the process of organic material transforming into carbon (coal) Archaological based evidence means a greater reliability- less bias Limitations lie within the excavation process which entails both the disruption of evidence and work the loss of evidence; thus not providing a full picture. Human Remains House of Meander 3 Children, hoe and pick found on student essay competitions, one side 10, mainly adult, bodies intertwined on the other side Demonstrates the force of the for essayedge, pyroclastic surge. Bronze lantern indicates the material available Ring Lady Found on the beach in Herculaneum apossible attempted escapee from the eruption 46 years old Gave birth to approximately 2-3 children Questioning over the rings and jewelry that it possibly had not originated from papad there Useful to understand how victims died from asphyxiation as extrapolated from the cowering body position Also useful to understand that most people ran to the beach Soldier 36 year old male found in Herculaneum 175cm a very tall for work for essayedge the time Stab wound in business plan thigh ademonstrates occupation as a soldier Every bone broken except for inner ear a demonstrates strength of pyroclastic surges Animal Remains Dog Found in Pompeii Body position that is convulsing shows the strength of the pyroclastic flow Demonstrates security in Pompeii a people had dogs as guards a corroborated by a mosaic on the floor of the House of the Tragic Poet with the inscription “cave canem” or “ beware of the dog” Fish Found in for essayedge Herculaneum latrine pit Show the prevalence of seafood and essays on south african apartheid the fishing industry Mule Found in a Pompeian bakery Suggests their use for labour in work for essayedge daily tasks such as winding a mill Thus allows one to extrapolate the student, contextual technology (or lack thereof) Horse Found in the Villa of Papyri in Herculaneum Horses used as domestic animals for people of high status Plant Remains Identified plants from plaster casts of work roots Carbonised materials of 26 plants Grapes 2400 vine root holes found Presence of grapes is attacks in pakistan corroborated by ancient writings and multiple frescoes Olives Carbonised whole fruit found within walls a importance within daily life Presence of olive presses- method of extracting the oil Gardens Different types of plants indicate social status Able to recreate gardens and vegetables used in everyday life. Incidental writings including: Graffiti An art form or a way of communication, as opposed to the contemporary view that it is defacement It was engraved using “stylus, iron nail, wooden splinter or tooth pick” M. Grant “Cheers! We drink like wineskins” “Sauvis demands full wine jars please, his thirst is work for essayedge enormous” Useful in student essay showing Historians the opinions and thoughts of people of all classes as well as detailing information about the work for essayedge, mundane It is highly reliable as it is spontaneously written by citizens and not intended for historiographical purposes.

Shopping lists Written on the walls of households, mainly in the culina Useful for showing everyday life as well as the resources/food available and consumed by do you when families Political Campaigning Written on the walls and gates of Pompeii in support of citizens who were either running in work the election or the current politicians Shows local aristocracy of the city, democracy, need for power Gladiatorial programs or edicta munerum Talk of favourite gladiators and comments on important battles Gladiatorial programs could also be found throughout the streets of Pompeii and plan Herculaneum Reveal the entertainment and leisure activities of the city One example, contains a victory carved on for essayedge, a city wall This suggests that the culture was not only interested in papad the sport of the game but actively invested themselves into the promotion and support of the game It is work for essayedge useful to papad business plan, reveal daily activities of Pompeians; specifically to for essayedge, a historian studying cultural values and anthropology Tombstone Inscriptions People who could not afford cremation would be buried with a tombstone displaying their funerary inscriptions Useful for phd dissertation geographie showing religious customs and burial practices. Advertisements Inscribed on the city walls throughout Pompeii and Herculaneum; essentially anyone could select a random location and illustrate their ad for the community to see, however it was unlikely that advertising would be found on work, the facades of private housing An example includes “In the property of Julia Felix, daughter of Spurius, elegant thermal baths for when i was refined people, shop with lodgings above and apartments on the first floor to let for five years” Inscriptions Writing on work, the city walls was a prominent form of written communication Wallace-Hadrill “The vibrating humanity of the geographie, city still echoes with a thousand voices in every corner that is for essayedge disinterred” Decorative Arts: Mosaics and essay competitions Frescoes. Frescoes , as derived from the great Hellenistic pictorial schools, are paintings on either wet or dry fresh lime plaster so that the pigments are absorbed into the layers of the work for essayedge, plaster. Usually frescos appeared on internal or external walls and incorporated pictures and designs. Due to their detail, mystery and beauty they have become prominent sources from Pompeii and Herculaneum and are categorised according to papad business, the four Pompeian styles (A system coined by August Mau in 1882) Structural Architectural Fantastic Ornamental Mosaics, are pictures or decorations made of different coloured pieces of stone, glass or other material, inlaid to form a simply or elaborate design. Usually mosaics appeared on work, the floor either inside or outside. Due to indent paragraphs writing, their intricate design and beauty they have become famous sources from Pompeii and Herculaneum. Cicero “Generally speaking, one tries to imitate the ways of the illustrious people” Wallace Hadrill “the decoration allowed the visitor a social orientation. It helped steer them within the house guiding them round the work, internal hierarchies of social space” Lessing “veritable outdoor art galleries” Mosaic on the entrance of the House of the Tragic Poet with the when i was, inscription “cave canem” or “beware of the dog”. The mosaic depicts an work, interpretation of Cerberus, the business, fierce 3 headed dog that guards the gates of Hell in Greek mythology.

Many Roman Arts had a Greek, Hellenistic influence indicating trade, social class as well as education. For Essayedge. Fresco Praedia of Julia Felix, is one of a unique set that depicts the busy daily life of Pompeii, including market stalls, an papad plan, open air school, conversation, and work a beggar receiving alms from a lady with her maid. Julia Felix was a very wealthy Roman woman; a very successful and well known businesswoman, property owner and public figure in Pompeii. One of the reasons she may have had artworks of the middle class life in her extravagant villa is due to her familial connections to on south african, Imperial freedmen, or her frequent dealings with middle class citizens. Mosaic, found in the triclinium in the House of the Faun, depicts the for essayedge, Greek God Dionysus (Roman counterpart Bacchus) as a child, riding a tiger. This enforces the papad business, Hellenistic influence on Roman religion and artwork. The masks depicted in the border around echo from Greek theatre, and the tiled waves are of a very Greek structure, and work for essayedge imply the importance of the sea to student essay competitions, the Pompeians; combined with a depiction of the for essayedge, god of fertility, serve to purport how big and valuable the fishing industry was to them. This mosaic, along with the many other Dionysian depictions found in the House of the Faun, also serve to suggest the owner being a strong adherent to the Dionysus/Bacchus cult. Fresco found in the Villa of the paragraphs when an essay, Mysteries, depicts the reading of the rituals of the bridal mysteries, to gain entry into work for essayedge, the cult.

The Villa of the Mysteries is named after the frescoes found in the Triclinium of the house; of which the subjects are hotly debated; one interpretation h suggests that the room was the headquarters for a secret Dionysian cult, for women, that required specific rites and rituals in order to do you indent paragraphs when writing, gain entry. Another interpretation is that of for essayedge Paul Veyne, who believes it to depict the bridal rites for young Pompeian women. Despite confirmation of the real interpretation, we can extrapolate the importance and most possible presence of geographie religious rites and its significance in Pompeian life. Ampitheatre- open circular or oval building with a central space for the presentation of dramatic or sporting events surrounded by tiers of seats for spectators. An inscription reveals that it was built by for essayedge two local officials Quinctius Valgus and Marcius Porcius at a private expense The ampitheatre was used for business plan gladiatorial games Tacitus “The people of work Pompeii, where the show was held, came off best” as they enjoyed witnessing such games A riot occurred in when i was 59AD, destroying much evidence, as spectators from Pompeii and the nearby town of Nuceria fought with each other, with the result that the work for essayedge, Emperor Nero banned games at Pompeii for 10 years Tacitus “The senate debarred Pompeii from holding any similar gathering for ten years” “The amphitheater was located in the eastern part of town, positioned against essay 2014, the embankment that filled this corner of the city wall, the towers of which can be seen in the background. A section of the awnings (velarium) that protected against work, the sun also is visible, the essays, masts of which were fitted through stone corbels attached to the rear wall of the summa cavea” Ada Gabucci Palaestra- wrestling school or gymnasium Palaestra is work highly valued by the Romans as it is a significant part of the Greek athletic tradition. A small palaestra was built in the 2 nd Century BC, however later more than a ha was cleared to build a larger palaestra near the attacks, ampitheatre. According to Zanker it was “140 by 130 meters in work area, 100 Iconic- Corinthian columns in a three sided portico, shaded by a row of african trees and for essayedge used to do you indent paragraphs when an essay, practice athletics and excersise” It also contained a “large swimming pool that must have certainly been welcome in the summer” (Zanker) Graffiti also evidences the variety of games that existed there Palaestra also served a political purpose as according to Cassius Dio the collegia juvenum were paid for by state to teach youth military discipline and loyalty to emperor in the Palaestra Temples- a building devoted to the worship of deities Temple of Isis Part of the notorious cult of Isis Egyptian influence The building consists of for essayedge a large rectangular space marked off by walls, within which is the a baby essay, cella of the god raised up on a pedestal and work standing in 2014 a splendid niche.

Of interest and great elegance is the small temple – with its plaster decorations – situated in the peristyle and for essayedge used for the preservation of the Nile water considered to be holy by the members of the cult of the Egyptian goddess Isis. Adjacent to the temple there is also a space to accommodate the priests’ houses and for the meeting of the faithful. Temple of Jupiter or Capitolium Centre of Religious life in Pompeii and dates back to the 2 nd Century BC Situated on the northern side of the Forum, it is dedicated to the highest divinity of ancient times – actually it was built in honour of the Jupter, Juno and Minerva triad – and i was a baby essay towers above a wide staircase with two large arches either side which have remained virtually intact. In a spectacular manner it closed off the fourth side of the for essayedge, square where there was no colonnade Temple of Apollo Integral part of the when i was a baby essay, Forum even though it predates it It goes back to the Samnite period of the 6 th Century The building shows architectural features of both italic and Greek derivation and has a rectangular plan with the for essayedge, perimeter being surrounded by an astonishing 48 columns. The inner cella, raised on a podium, was reached by papad business means of a long flight of steps. Opposite these was the sacrificial altar. The central part, which contains the altar to the god, is also surrounded by columns.

It is adorned with two statues depicting “Apollo shooting arrows” and “Diana” (the originals are housed in the National Archaeological Museum in Naples). On one of the columns which mark off the cella of the god there was a sundial. b. The limitations, reliability and evaluation of sources. No content – all skills section. c. The evidence provided by the sources from Pompeii and Herculaneum. 62 AD earthquake: killed 600 Sheep, only warning sign. 79 AD eruption of Mount Vesuvius. Pliny the Younger’s Account of the Eruption and the Death of his Uncle. At the time of the for essayedge, eruption, Pliny the Elder was with Pliny the Younger were at Misenum, however, Pliny the Elder commanded a fleet that sailed to Stabiae to assist with the damage Pliny the Younger recounts the early stage of the eruption, later known as the ‘Plinean stage’ Pliny the Younger in his letters to Tacitus writes that the only warning signs were tremors in the days prior to the eruption, however this was seen “less alarming because frequent in Campania” (Pliny the do you indent an essay, Younger) The first sign was “a cloud of unusual size and form” Pliny the Younger Limitations of work Pliny the Younger’s account include the fact that he wrote 25 years after the eruption in the form of two letters to his friend Tacitus.

Some events are also exaggerated as well as the significant omission of the date of the eruption. However, Pliny the Younger acknowledges these limitations as he states “it is papad plan one thing to write a letter, another to write history” recognising that his work is “not worthy of serious history”. He also refers to the Campania region as a whole rather than specifying Pompeii or Herculaneum. Despite these limitations, Pliny the Younger was an for essayedge, eyewitness of the events and thus he can still be deemed a reliable source as his account provides a personal account which can be corroborated with Volcanologists. Pliny the Younger compared the do you indent paragraphs, cloud to an “umbrella pine” that reached great heights and spread into “various branches” Upon his route, Pliny the for essayedge, Elder’s boat was stuck at the Stabiae shore due to geographie, what Seutonius described as “adverse winds” which caused him to be “overcome by the force of dust and ashes” (Ibid), The reliability of Seutonius is however limited, as he was a gossip columnist who even speculated that Pliny the Elder was “killed by a slave” Pliny the Younger recounts the death of his uncle at Stabiae, commemorating and idolising his Uncle, stating that he was “pretending to be cheerful” in order to maintain composure among his troops. Pliny the work, Younger describes the eruption as a “terrifying black cloud, split by twisted blasts of indent paragraphs fire shooting in different directions, gaped to reveal long fiery shapes, similar to flashes of lightening, only bigger” The eruption of 79 AD has been analysed and chronologically categorised through stratigraphic analysis of the layers or strata of volcanic ash. Pyroclastic surge: evidenced by thin black layers; a low density turbulent cloud of hot ash and rock that billows over terrain, barely touching the for essayedge, ground. A pyroclastic surge travels at incredibly high speeds of up to 300 km/h. The eruption at essays Vesuvius was unique as there was six layers in the strata indicating there were six pyroclastic surges. Pyroclastic flow: a much denser, hotter, dry avalanche of ground hugging molten rock, pumice and work for essayedge gasses.

It moves a lot slower than a surge- only up to 50 km/h Sequence of events: Day one (midday): An initial explosion thrusts a “terrifying black cloud” that resembled an “umbrella pine” that reached 20 kilometers into the air and spread out into “various branches” (Pliny the Younger). Pumice is formed from hot magma that has cooled so quickly that it is when a baby essay still full of for essayedge volcanic gasses and is like a hard foamy sponge. Plan. Day one (midday) – day two (4-6am): Pumice fallout all over Pompeii begins, ranging from pebble size called lapilli (about 1cm) to rock size (up to 20cm), according to work, [1] Cassius Dio “enourmous stones were thrown up to drone in pakistan, reach the height of the mountain-tops themselves”. The buildup causes roofs to for essayedge, collapse under the weight. Travel around Pompeii becomes difficult. Pumice fallout at Herculaneum is less. (Day two (4-6 am): The collapse of the column of hot gas and pumice in the quasi initial explosion, caused a series of pyroclastic surges and flows of ash and hot gases, which race to the south and west at an estimated speed of up to 100 kilometers an hour. The first surge covers Herculaneum in 3 m of hot ash while, in accordance with Cassius Dio, “all the while an inconceivable quantity of ash was being blown out; it covered both sea and land and filled all the air” Day two (5-7 am): A second surge deposits another 1.5 m of essays on south apartheid ash on Herculaneum Day 2 (around 6:30 am): a third surge in for essayedge the direction of Pompeii stops at the Herculaneum gate. Day 2 (7:30-8 am): Three more successive surges, reaching temperatures between 100? and essays on south african apartheid 400? bury Pompeii to a depth of up to 4 m, as corroborated by Eusebius in his Chronicle stating that the surges “consumed the surrounding countryside”. Work For Essayedge. The final surge reaches Misenum. NOTE: 2 stages: The first or the Plinean Stage, that lasted eighteen to twenty hours and produced a rain of pumice southward of the cone that built up to depths of 4m at Pompeii, followed by a pyroclastic flow in the second, Pelean phase that reached as far as Misenum but was concentrated to the west and northwest. Herculaneum lay directly under Mt Vesuvius, only 7km from its peak, it suffered a different although even more horrific fate than Pompeii.

The people of Herculaneum would certainly have been terrified by the initial explosion, shock waves and papad plan earth tremours in the Plinean stage of the eruption, as according to Cassius Dio “people fled, some from their houses into the streets, others from for essayedge outside indoors”. In an article published in essay 2002 Sigurdsson and Casey elaborate on the stratigraphic evidence, asserting that as Herculaneum was upwind of the work, fallout, the drone attacks essay, pumice fall in the first few hours was moderately light. However, in the next and work more destructive phase of the student essay competitions 2014, eruption, the Pelean phase, Herculaneum bore the full brunt of the succession of pyroclastic surges. The first, reaching temperatures of over for essayedge 400?, would have killed the inhabitants, and subsequent surges and flows destroyed buildings and carbonised organic matter. In this final phase, the city was buried up to a depth of 20m compared with the competitions, 4m at Pompeii. Differences in the destruction of Pompeii and Herculaneum: Further away from the peak More pumice fallout but less surges Buried under 4m of ash. Closer to the peak (only 7km away) – suffered more damage Less pumice fallout but more surges, and before Pompeii received surges. Buried under 20m of ash. Roman response: Modern Historian Diess, recounts in his work “Herculaneum, Italy’s Buried Treasure” that “news of the eruption was flashed to work for essayedge, Rome by signal towers” where it was dealt with in the “most efficient Roman manner” and “the popular emperor Titus dispensed emergency aid with his own funds in addition to the funds of the state” corroborated by Seutonius who stated that Titus “displayed not merely the concern of an emperor but also the deep love of a father”. Moreover, Diess states that the senate decreed that “the assets of do you indent when writing extinct families should be divided among all survivors yet no aid could compensate for such a loss” again congruent with Cassius Dio who stated Titus “restored all damage from his resources”.

How people died: Herculaneum was hit by a pyroclastic flow travelling at work for essayedge 300 km/h The high temperatures caused brains to boil and skulls to explode Bodies vapourised and the soft tissue disappeared, replaced by ash and they immediately became skeletons. Lack of papad plan oxygen caused items to work for essayedge, be carbonised and thus preserved. Bread a basic staple food of Romans Baking ovens only rarely found in houses. Essay Competitions. Almost all people went to for essayedge, a bakery for i was a baby essay their bread. For Essayedge. Bakers were highly respected and when i was a baby essay could become wealthy. Made and sold bread on bakery premises and sold either on premises or from stalls.

Bakery of Modestus had 3 small mills for grinding flour and one large baking oven.· 81 Loaves of bread were found in the Bakery of Modestus – carbonised To date, 33 bakeries have been found in Pompeii. Small mills were turned by donkeys. Work For Essayedge. Two donkey skeletons were found still harnessed to drone essay, mills in Herculaneum. Evidence of at least 10 different bread products, including offellae, and for essayedge a kind of dog biscuit for their pets. Standard loaves were flat, about papad business plan 5 cms thick. Bakers shop in Herculaneum. A seal in shop reads ‘Sextus Patulcus felix’, possibly the baker himself. 25 different baking pans of various sizes found in this shop – he specialized in cakes. Workers trod the work for essayedge, cloth in a mixture of fuller’s earth, potash, carbonate of do you indent paragraphs writing soda and urine. Work. Fullers rinsed, dried and brushed the cloth.

It was then bleached with sulfar and papad plan died Wool was also used in the processing of felt a slippers, hats, blankets, coats The Guild of Fullers a powerful organisation a headquarters are interpreted controversially to be in the Eumachia Building. The large number of fulleries and dye-shops far exceeded local demand and could be interpreted as evidence of an important export trade a physical remains easily identified due to fixed facilities a vats, tanks for washing, cauldrons for heating water 4 Fulleries are large – Fullery of Stephanus is one Fullery of Stephanus – typical fullery – clothes press, a large balcony, one large basin for washing, 5 small foot-basins and three large interconnecting basins for rinsing. Stephanus hung the wet clothes over work cans on the upper floor and in the courtyard whilst Lucius Veranius Hypsaeus dried the fabric on brick pillars between the Corinthian columns of a large atrium. A clothes press was discovered in drone attacks in pakistan a shop attached to work for essayedge, the House of the Wooden Partition in Herculaenum. Statue of Eumachia – patron of cloth makers and dyers – found in the building. Made from different types of competitions 2014 fish that were left to ferment for work approx. 1-3 months Used to 2014, flavour meat, vegetables, fish, fruit and medicine. Most fish fermenting facilities were found outside the town – some form of Garum processing did take place in town in a house in Region I. Hundreds of labeled garum containers of a distinctive shapes, known as urcei, found at Pompeii demonstrate its popularity. Pliny the Elder “ no other liquid excep unguents has come to be more highly valued” Garume was a potent mix, made from “the guts of fish and other parts that would otherwise refuse” Ponsich and Tarradell Aulus Umbricius Scaurus – owned at least 6 workshops producing garum – 30% of Garum containers in Campania carry his name or that of his extended family. E.g. epigraphic evidence states “The best liquamen of A. Umbricius Scaurus” Mosaic of a garum urceus, from the House of Umbricius Scaurus, the inscription reads ‘flower or liquamen’– stopper is when it is used for trade, the stopper preserves it.

Vineyards are found in town and in the country Mostly grapes were pressed with a wine press but some were pressed by foot. Generally wine appears to have been brought in from the countryside when needed· Wine Villas in for essayedge the country had rooms for pressing the grapes (tocularia), for fermentation (cella vinariae) and storage. Wine jars were buried completely or partially in the ground for protection for weather – storage. Wine was transported to town in large leather wineskins (cullei) Most famous local wines: Vesuvinum and Pompianum. 2014 vine-root cavities of essays apartheid a large commercial vineyard near the Pompeian Ampitheatre a on site was a room set up for wine pressing and a shed with embedded dolia which could each fill 40 amphorae. Smaller vineyards adjoining the Inn of Euxinus and the Inn of the Gladiators have been found; grapes were pressed on the premises. Villas of Boscoreale- Villa of Pisanella and Villa Regina – Pisanella had an internal courtyard of 120 dolia that could hold up to 50,000 litres| Regina had 18 dolia holding 10,000 litres. Large variety- Herculaneum: epigraphic evidence of a sign on work for essayedge, a wine bar inviting patrons to ‘Come to the Sign of the Bowls’ advertised half a dozen types of wine and their vintages.

Large variety – Pompeii: Tavern advertisement “drink here for just one as; for two you can drink better, and for four have some really good Falernian wine” Martial stated in his Epigram: “famed grapes filled the dripping vats” Pliny the Elder discusses the potency of attacks in pakistan Pompeian wines stating that “Pompeian wines are rather dangerous” and can “cause a headache” Strabo describes Pompeii as a “fortified trading post” Imports More imports than exportsa indicates that Pompeian society was wealthy in that they had the luxury to try exotic things at their own expense. Also indicates developed international relations and trading schemes. Tableware- terra sigillata- from Puteoli Such as red-slipped table vessels found in most houses. Terra sigillata from northern Italy, Southern Gaul and Cyprus One specific example is a chest found in 1881containing 90 carefully packed and unused south gaulish bowls and work for essayedge 37 earthenware lamps.

An extrapolation that can be made from the discovery of these items is that they are representative of a recently received consignment to a Pompeian wholesaler of such wares. Wine from Kos, Crete, Rhodes, Turkey, Sicily, Palestine and phd dissertation geographie central Ital.y Olive oil from Libya and Spain Garum from Spain Exports Garum A mosaic from the work for essayedge, House of Umbricius Scaurus depicts a bottle of do you when writing garum with the inscription ‘flower of liquament’ and a stopper on the lid. Work For Essayedge. The presence of a stopper indicates that garum was intended for trade. Pliny the drone attacks essay, Elder “ no other liquid excep unguents has come to be more highly valued” Wine Amphorae from Pompeii has been found as far afield as Middlesex in the UK Bronzes and metal work From literary sources, we know Campania (more pointedly the for essayedge, town of Capua) was famous for its bronze vessels, thus it is phd dissertation geographie possible that such metal work was also exported from Pompeii. While a marble relief was found depicting metal workers, its findspot was not recorded, only one metal working premises can be securely identified outside the work, Vesuvian Gate due to the presence of drone in pakistan essay hammers and for essayedge anvils. The fact that the metal workshop was found outside the gates brings historians to the collective extrapolations regarding the concept of avoiding taxes, positioning workshops close to resources, as well as having a highly developed scheme of specialized labour. Industry was central to the economies of Pompeii and Herculaneum- agriculture, wine, garum and olive oil production being the most prominent industires.

Bread a basic staple food of Romans Baking ovens only rarely found in houses. Geographie. Almost all people went to a bakery for for essayedge their bread. Bakers were highly respected and could become wealthy. Made and sold bread on bakery premises and student competitions 2014 sold either on premises or from stalls. Bakery of work Modestus has 3 small mills for grinding flour and one large baking oven.

81 Loaves of bread were found in the Bakery of Modestus. (carbonised) To date, 33 bakeries have been found in Pompeii. Small mills were turned by donkeys. Two donkey skeletons were found still harnessed to mills in essay competitions Herculaneum. Evidence of at least 10 different bread products, including offellae , and a kind of dog biscuit for their pets. Standard loaves were flat, about 5 cms thick. Bakers shop in Herculaneum. A seal in shop reads ‘Sextus Patulcus felix’, possibly the work, baker himself. Specialised in cakes for when i was “twenty-five bronze baking pans of various sizes, from about four inches to a foot and a half” (Deiss. Principal sources of income for Vesuvians; generally, the profitable cultivation of both vineyards and olive groves could only be undertaken by the wealthy, because of the cost of the long wait between planting anf the first harvest, and work for essayedge the cost of olive and wine presses. Many of the landowners who had estates in the countryside lived in essay competitions 2014 the city, visiting their villa irregularly and leaving it to be run by trusted dependents e.g. the work for essayedge, rich Pompeian banker Lucius Caecilius Jucundus is believed to have owned the Villa of Pisanella.

Excavation by when i was a baby essay Jashemski revealed 2014 vine-root cavities from a large commercial vineyard near the Pompeian amphitheatre; on the site was a torcularium, and work for essayedge a shed with embedded dolia which could each fill 40 amphorae. Do You Indent An Essay. Smalled vineyards adjoining the Inn of Euxinus and Inn of the Gladiators have been found, with torculas; in other places, grapes were pressed by foot Generally, wine doesn’t seem to have been stored in large quantities in taverns or bars, but brought in from the work for essayedge, countryside when needed. Villas had torculariums (pressing), cellae viniariae (fermentation), and storage. The torcula “consisted of a solid wooden crossbar fixed at one end and pushed downwards by means of a winch with an arm lever.” Pliny the Elder said “districts with a mild climate store their wine in phd dissertation geographie jars and bury them completely or partially in the ground thus protecting them from the weather…spaces must be left between jars to prevent anything likely to affect the wine from passing from work one to the other, as the wine very soon becomes tainted.”. The viticultural villas at Boscoreale, Regina and Pisanella, possessed a huge storage capacity – pisanella:120 dolia with 50 000 L capacity, Regina: 18 dolia with 10 000L. A wide variety of wines were produced in the Vesuvian area: a sign on a Herculaneum wine bar inviting patrons to essay, “ Come to the Sign of the Bowls” advertised half a dozen types of work wine and plan their vintages. Another tavern in Pompeii advertisement confirms that there was a wide range of wines sold in Pompeii: “…drink here for just one as; for two you can drink better, and for work four have some really good Falernian wine.” From Pliny’s Natural History and evidence from labelled wine jars, it seems the two most famous local wines were Vesuvinum and indent when writing an essay Pompeianum.

Of the latter, Pliny said “Wines from Pompeii are at their best within ten years and gain nothing from greater maturity”, but he maintained that they were “injurious because of the for essayedge, hangover they cause, which persists until noon the papad business plan, following day.” Judging from a scrawl on the wall of a Pompeian bar, the quality of wine varied considerably: “Inn – keeper of the devil, die drowned in your own piss-wine. You sell the inferior stuff but you keep for yourself, you swine, the good bottles.” The same estates that produced wine produced olives and oil The Villa of Pisanella held enough storage for 5910 L of for essayedge olive oil According to Pliny, more skill was “needed to papad business plan, produce olive oil than wine, because the same tree produces different kinds of oil…the green olive, which has not yet begun to ripen, gives the first oil and this has an outstanding taste…the riper the berry the more greasy and less pleasant is the flavour of the oil”. The oil from the green olive was also used in the manufacture of perfume which Pliny believed was “the most pointless of all luxuries.” Most of the pressing was done on estates even though oil presses were found in Pompeian houses and in the Forum granary. Because “The cause of oil is warmth” (Pliny), presses and store rooms had to be warmed by work large fires. Cato, in his Agriculture, recorded that Pompeian presses made from lava stone were the student essay competitions 2014, best. These trapeta were for the first pressing, to separate the flesh from the pip so as to avoid the oil gaining a bitter taste. The second pressing was done with the grape press torcula . “The first oil from the work for essayedge, press is the richest, and the quality diminishes with each successive pressing … age imparts an unpleasant taste to oil and after a year it is when a baby old.” (Pliny) Within Pompeii, officinae oleariae retailed oil and it is for essayedge believed that there may have been an olive market near or in the Forum olitorium . Oil was not only essays african apartheid used as the basic ingredient in perfume, but also for cooking, particularly in work for essayedge the thermopolia which provided a service to those who had limited cooking facilities in essays on south their homes, and for work for essayedge lighting. Oil was used in the thermae and palaestra for rubbing into bodies. Pliny disapproved of this practice which he blamed on the Greeks ‘the Greeks, progenitors of all vices, have diverted the use of olive oil to serve the ends of luxury by in pakistan making it available in gymnasia.’

Pompeii was renowned for its garum, a fish sauce which was one of the main condiments used for flavouring roman cuisine. According to for essayedge, Pliny, “no other liquid except unguents has come to be more highly valued.” They were various flavours depending on the type and quality of the fish used and it’s method of preparation. Apparently the valuable red mullet made the best garum, followed by tuna, mackerel and sardines, while anchovies were used four less refined sauces. The fisherman from Pompeii and Herculaneum sold their catches, both fresh and salted, in the market in the forum but prominent garam manufacturers such as Marcus Umbricius Scaurus may have obtained his fish more directly. The wealthiest families had a monopoly on its manufacture which they then sold to street retailers. Student Competitions. Garum was a potent mix, made from ‘the guts of work for essayedge fish and other parts that would otherwise be considered refuse’, probably gills, intestines and blood, and the smell must have pervaded Pompeii. Although it was popular with most some like seneca, hated the foul smell. The following gives a more detailed description of its manufacture: “The entrails of when i was a baby essay sprats or sardines, the work for essayedge, parts that could not be used for sailting were mixed with finely chopped portions of fish and with roe and do you paragraphs when writing eggs and then pounded crushed and stirred.

The mixture was left in the sun or a warm room and for essayedge beaten into a homogenous pulp until it fewrmented. When A Baby Essay. When this Liquamen, as it was called, had been much reduced over a period of six weeks by evaporation. It was placed in a basket with perforated bottom through which the residue filtered slowly into a receptacle. The end product decanted into work for essayedge, jars was the apartheid, famous garum; the dregs levft over for essayedge were also regarded as edible and known as Allec” (M. Ponsich M. Essay. Tarradell) A product indispensable to the production of garum was salt. The Pompeians skilfully exploited a depression near the coastal road to Herculaneum to make a salt plant. Saltwater, washed up by the high tides, entered a channel into for essayedge, large shallow basins where it evaporated in the sun. As its concentration increased, it was allowed to overflow into progressively concentrated pools.

Eventually, the pure crystallised salt was collected with spades from the final basin. Wool was the basis of one of the most important industries in Pompeii, the washing and phd dissertation dyeing of wool and the manufacture of cloth. Associated with this laundering, bleaching and re-colouring of clothes. Both these activities were carried out in workshops and fullonicae or laundries. The raw wool was first sent to an officina lanifricariaae where is was degreased by boiling in for essayedge leaden boiler.

Once carded it was taken to the spinners and do you indent weavers, in work for essayedge private homes or in offic nae The cloth was next sent to when, officinae tinctoriae for dyeing, often in bright colours such as purple or saffron. The finished product was distributed to cloth merchants. Laundries or fullonicae were scattered all over Pompeii – 18, of which four, like the Fullery of Staphanus, were large. Work. Some occupied the rooms of private houses (possibly rented) and were identified by a number of interconnected basins or tanks with built-in steps for washing and rinsigi. Workers trod the cloth in a mixture of fuller’s earthpotash, carbonate of drone attacks sode and urine (because of its ammonia content). Although camel urine was the most prized, laundries usually hadd to for essayedge, make do with human urine and i was a baby male passers-by were urged to supply their urine by filling the jugs hanging outside. There were special areas set aside for urine collection. The fullers then rinsed, dried and brushed the cloth. Lucius Veranius Hypsaeus dried his fabric on brick pillars between the Corinthian columns of large atrium, while another fuller, Stephanus, hung the wet clothes over canes on the upper floor and in the courtyard.

Once dried, the cloth was bleached with sulphur and work then dyed. Igh, and over half a metre tle under two metrres high, and over half a metre wide, was discovered in a shop attached to the House of the Wooden Partition in Herculaneum, and a painted sign over `the Pompeian workshop of M. Vecilius Verecundus, an eminent mill owner and cloth merchant, showed the in pakistan, various processes involved in cloth manufacture. Wool was used also in work the processing of felt to make slippers, hats, blankets and cloaks. It was impregnated with heated vinegar, creating a matted effect, and then pushed and pressed until it reached the on south african, right consistency. The Guild of Fullers was a powerful organisation within the city.

Its headquarters, as well as a possible wool market, were located in for essayedge the Eumachia building on the eastern side of the Forum. This magnificent building, with the dimensions and layout of a temple, was paid for by the priestess/business woman Eumachia, who has married a wealthy owner of in pakistan pastures and flocks of sheep and work for essayedge became the patron of the cloth – makers and student essay 2014 dyers. She dedicated it in her own name that of her son, Numistaeius Fronto, to the imperial family. Within the building was a statue of herself. The thirty or so bakeries that have been identified in Pompeii saved householders from buying the grain , milling it into flour and baking their own bread, which was a basic foodstuff. Because of the poor quality of the flour, the bread was very hard, and due to the lack of yeast, deteriorated quickly. Bakeries did their own refining of the grazing in work for essayedge lava stone mills, usually three or four, set in a paved courtyard with a table for kneading the dough, and a brick oven. A mill was composed of three parts: a fixed conical block called a meta , a mosnry base with a lamina for collecting glour, and a hollow cylinder, catillus, into which was inserted a pole, turned by essays african mules or donkeys. The ovens were heated by burning vine faggots, and, once hot enough, they were cleaned out in readiness for baking small round loaves of bread. These, marked off in eight sections for easy breaking, were dispatched to the various small shops and stalls in surrounding streets.

A few bakeries had an adjoining area for selling their own bread, but most did not. 4 copper assus = 1 bronze sestertius. 4 bronze sestertii = 1 silver denarius. 25 denarii = 1 gold aureus. Roman prices tended to fluctuate according to local conditions, thus historians are unable to determine exact values and make concretised observations. For example, epigraphic evidence engraved on uneven columns in the atrium walls of work for essayedge a house states that “7 days before the indent paragraphs, Ides” bread was worth 8 copper asses or 2 sestertii wheras “3 days before the ides” the work, price of bread went down to student 2014, only 2 copper asses.

Copper asses were the most common form of currency as people did not trust their slaves with the likes of denarii let alone the precious gold aureus. A collection of 1600 coins was found in the dolium of counter in the Inn of Lucius Vetutius Placidus, indicating that Pompeians had an ancient form of work cash registers! Pompeian society placed a significant emphasis on commercial life and commercial success The forum as well as the via del’ abbadanza (the main thoroughfare of Pompeii) was crowded with shops Identified shops include a mason’s shop, extrapolated from a fresco depicting masonry tools as well as the owner’s name- Diogenes. A carpenters shop was also excavated, and identified according to a similar fresco depicting carpenter’s tools. Seen in the frieze in drone in pakistan essay the Praedia of Julia Felix where scenes reveal the busy markets in the forum. The emphasis on commercial life is evidenced by work for essayedge the fact some shops advertised their commercial interests as well as the strong desire for profit The mosaic on the entrance near the porta antica of the House of Umbricius Scaurus showed a amphorae or vessel of garum a pictures were the universal language as not all were literatea people sent their slaves out to do the shopping Epigraphic evidence proclaimed “profit is joy” found inscribed on the mosaic entrance way of two wealthy men, Siricus and Numerianus.as well as another “welcome gain” inscribed around the impluvium of the house of a carpentera Pompeian society was concerned with wealth and almost was capitalist! Images of Mercury, the i was essay, god of commerce, were also displayed in numerous places to fain blessings: on a sign outside a shop; on a sale counter; as part of a set of scales; or on the wall of a workshop. Over 600 privately owned shops, workshops and work for essayedge inns have been excavated. Herculaneum was known to indent paragraphs, be a quieter fishing/ resort tow than the bustling and commercial Pompeii. NB: Herculaneum was the work for essayedge, port town and thus their commercial interests primarily revolved around fishing. Markets, or macellum, were another prominent aspect of the economy.

Seen in the frieze in competitions 2014 the Praedia of Julia Felix where scenes reveal the busy markets in the forum- more specifically the meat and fish market. The existence of these is verified by fish bones found scattered in the forum. Temporary markets were also common, these too are represented in the Frieze from the Praedia of Julia Felix which portrays scenes of a mules and carts carrying merchandise; a man displaying shoes; cloth merchants showing their wares to two women; a man selling bread and a fruit and work for essayedge vegetable stall, indicating stalls were set up for vendors to sell goods such as shoes, cloth, metal vessels, fruit and vegetables. As well as stalls situated in the surrounds of the ampitheatre, established to sell refreshments to patrons. Markets were set up on specific days, as reinforced by epigraphic evidence on papad business plan, the facade of the Shop of the Potter Zosimus that Pompeian market day was “Saturn’s day”

Full legal rights Could hold political office Wealthy landowners and businessmen Controlled public finances, spaces and religion Privileged seats in the ampitheatre and theatre Received honorary statues and tombs. Could not hold public office. Were under legal control of fathers or husbands. Could own property Conducted businesses Constructed buildings and work tombs Held priesthoods Supported electoral candidates Received honorary statues and tombs. Men and women freed from slavery Often worked for essay former masters Many became wealthy and influential.

Voted in elections Owned businesses Participated in some religious cults Could become an Augustalis (Priest of the Cult of the Emperor – highest political position they could reach) Could not hold formal political office. Could not hold formal political office Some worked for former Masters. 40% of the population were slaves Little evidence of their lives remained Some slaves were owned by Pompeii’s town council. Few tombstones attributed to slaves Domestic work common Few houses had separate slave quarters There is a wide range of slaves, from work German’s who were commonly sent to the salt mines, to educated Italian’s who had simply fallen into debt. Women: Hand maiden slaves – hair, clothes, jewellery Gladiators are slaves yet highly respected. The typical role of women in Roman society was to perform tasks such as running the household, bringing up the children and controlling finances; Rome is a military empire, and the men had to be out training all day as soldiers, working as a politician for when essay the empire, or be an external merchant; thus, Pompeian women had much more freedom than their Roman counterparts. Work. The evidence of wall paintings (Julia Felix’s frieze) inscriptions and frescoes show Pompeian women actively engaged in public life and papad business moving freely about the city. Inscriptions about for essayedge rich women Marcia and Rufina Metilia inform us of the ability of women to own property in their own right and to manage their affairs without supervision by a male relative. A prominent Pompeian woman was Poppaea Sabina. Her family owned the House of essay Menander and the House of the Gilded Cupids. She was married to the emperor Nero and owned her own villa in nearby Oplantis.

Another important businesswoman was Eumachia. Her family owned brickmaking works and for essayedge vineyards, as suggested by amphorae discovered all over the Mediterranean. Papad Business. She constructed a large building in for essayedge the Forum that bears her name: the geographie, Eumachia building. Work. A Latin inscription from the 1st Century AD reads: “Eumachia, the public priestess (of Venus), daughter of geographie Lucius, had the vestibule, the covered gallery, and the porticoes made with her own money and dedicated in her own name and in the name of her son Marcus Numistrius Fronto, in honour of the goddess Concord and Augustan Piety.” She married into another prominent family, her husband Marcus Numistrius Fronto, who either him or their identically named son held the office of duumvir in AD 3. Wooden and for essayedge wax tablets detailing the financial transactions of the banker Caecilius Jucundus provide further information about phd dissertation women conducting business. There are at least fourteen women mentioned in these documents. For Essayedge. One, Umbricia Januaria, was possibly a freed slave as suggested by essay her name.

She operated a business for her former master: “Umbricia Januaria hereby attests that she received from L. Caecilius Juncundus 11, 039 sestertii, less a percentage [1-2 per cent] as his commission, for for essayedge the auction of good on her behalf.” Although women could not vote, they made public declarations supporting particular candidates for election. From the electoral campaign programmata from Pompeii, it seems it was quite acceptable and legitimate for women to do this. For example, Taedia Secunda canvassed votes for her grandson; Asellina scrawled electoral comments on the walls of her tavern. Women at do you writing Pompeii may have attended the contiones before candidates were chosen. The election programmata show that women did have a part in the public life even if they did not vote: “The programmata may be regarded as a collective activity in which women took part no only as members or clients of the for essayedge, family but also as members of the community and the electoral district.” (Sauvnen) From graffiti and inscriptions, we can gain otherwise limited knowledge into the lives of less wealthy women. Phd Dissertation. Valeria Hedone and Asellina owned taverns; Statia and Petronia worked in bakeries; Amaryllis and Specula worked in the cloth trade. Other women worked as vegetable sellers, weavers, doctors and money lenders. “ Vettia accepted from Faustilla 15 denarii with eight assess in work interest” . I Was. There were also the lower class poor women and slaves who worked as household servants, cooks, cleaners, wet nurses and prostitutes. Work For Essayedge. Funerary monuments testify to the fact that some Pompeuan women were important enough to have been honoured by a funeral at public expense.

One such woman was the priestess Mamia. Another woman. Veia Barchilla, erected and paid for attacks in pakistan a large tomb to commemorate the life of her husband. One feature of life that was common to all levels of work society in Pompeii and Herculaneum was the phd dissertation, relationship of client and work patron. Elite freeborn families acted as patrons to those in the lower class. Essay. It was the responsibility of the client to support his patron at political elections and do any favours that might be required. In return, the patron might assist his client in legal matter or give him a small free gift or a free meal.

One example of the for essayedge, patron-client relationship at Pompeii was that between Eumachia and the guild of fullers. The statue of Eumachia was erected in her honour by the fullers guild. The inscription reads “The Fullers [dedicated this statue] to Eumachia, daughter of Lucius, public priestess.” Extract from “Pompeii and Herculaneum: Interpreting the Evidence” by Brian Brennan and Estelle Lazer: Political life at Pompeii and Herculaneum was dominated by the patronage of poorer citizens and of particular social and phd dissertation business groups by members of a powerful, wealthy and for essayedge influential elite. In a way similar to essays african, Rome itself, where the great senatorial families had an impressive tradition of office-holding and public service, powerful local Pompeians offered both protection and for essayedge assistance to geographie, individuals. They assisted those who sought advancement in political office or desired to make connections and alliances that would help them in business or in for essayedge social life.

In return, the patrons expected support in elections and public recognition of their exalted status. The patron, patronus , could expect support from papad business his clients, clients . Every patronus sought to outdo his rivals in the size and extent of his supporters, clientela. The number of clients who came to your house in the morning, or who accompanied you to the forum, or who cheered you in the theatre, indicated your importance. Patronage might also be extended to separate groups within the community or to the whole populace, whose support was won by offering benefits, beneficia. Benefits could include the for essayedge, provision of food, gladiatorial entertainments, public works or projects such as theatres, temples or public baths. Duumviri : ‘the two men’. They operated as co-mayors of Pompeii and could only serve one year.

Elections took place each year in the spring. Indent When. They were also in charge of justice. Aediles: Two citizens were elected to this position each year. They were described as ‘ two men, for work taking care of drone essay streets, buildings, temples and public buildings’. At its foundation in c. 80BC, the for essayedge, Colonia Cornelia Veneria Pompeianorum was given a lex (or charter), that set out the competitions 2014, political and administrative structure still in use at the time of the eruption in 79AD. There were 3 political institutions at Pompeii: The comitium or ‘people’s assembly: Made up of work for essayedge all adult, male citizens of the town, including freedmen. It functioned to elect magistrates and to vote honours. The ordo decurionum: The legislative body of Pompeii, able to make decisions on any matter that concerned the colony as a whole. Its members were called ‘decurions’ . New members were elected every five years – likely to have remained until death. 2014. The magistracy: Two duumvirs and two aediles (junior magistrates), who were responsible for the judicial system, administration, public works, and buildings, municipal cults and games-giving.

The magistrates presided over for essayedge proceedings in the ordo and elections in the comitium. Phd Dissertation Geographie. Every 5 years the duumvirs held a census to revise the list of for essayedge ordo members and were given the title quinquennial duumvirs. A candidate for magistracy must be male, free-born, over 25, have a fortune above a certain level and have an unblemished reputation. To become duumvir a candidate first had to be elected aedile. Attacks. Other honours: The most prestigious honour to be bestowed on a citizen was that of ‘patron’ of the town. For Essayedge. A patron was formally selected by competitions 2014 the town council to represent and protect the interests of the community at Rome. E.G.

Marcus Holconius Rufus and Marcellus. Another rare, purely honorific title was that of ‘military tribune'; this was awarded to for essayedge, a citizen of popular demand, presumably in return for services to the community. E.G. Essays On South African. Marcus Tullius and Marcus Holconius Rufus. Herculaneum : Political set up similar to Pompeii, however it did not suffer the imposition of for essayedge a colony after the Social War of 91-87BC. Surviving inscriptions demonstrate that Herculaneum was run by two annually elected duumvirs. Aediles, also attested, would have supervised the markets, roads and public buildings. The town’s finances may have been overseen by a third official, a quaestor, who is when writing mention in a single inscription. Programmata Programmata are unique to Pompeii They are painted posters, usually red or black on a white background. They support particular candidates for political office.

It is thought that the candidates often commissioned them themselves. Work. They have been found on the facades of houses, particularly on major thoroughfares where many passers-by would have seen them. Paragraphs Writing. 131 candidates have been identified, 90% of them dating to election campaigns after 62AD. “I ask you to elect Gnaeus Helvius Sabinus and work Marcus Samellius Modestus aediles, men worth of public office” “All the fruit-sellers with Helvius Vestalis call for Marcus Holconius Priscus as duumvir for lawsuits” The 79AD election campaign of Gnaeus Helvius Sabinus is particularly well documented. Programmata relating to his attempt to become aedile have been found on major thoroughfares such as the Via dell’ Abbondanza. Monumental Inscriptions: On stone and bronze – found at indent paragraphs both Pompeii and Herculaneum. Marble a more common Bronze a more important – more valuable Unlike programmata, monumental inscriptions were usually permanent. Work For Essayedge. The inscriptions fall into categories of: Official declarations: Public pronouncements or decisions. Honorific inscriptions: Honours voted by the comitium to particular individiuals who had their statues set up at public expense.

In the african, Forum, 41 bases for standing statues along the poritcoed sides and 16 equestion bases can still be seen. Aulus Umbricius Scaurus was honoured with an equestrian statue. Dedications: Found on work, public buildings and record who or what the building is dedicate to and who paid for it. Gladiators were usually slaves or convicted criminals. They trained at the Palaestra and in the Gladiators’ Barracks.

Helmets, greaves and weapons were found in the gladiators’ barracks, due to poor recording much evidence was lost, 15 complete helmets, 6 single greaves, 5 pairs of essays greaves, 3 shoulder guards and a small round shield remain– lavish embossments imply they were used for work for essayedge ceremonial parades rather than actual fights. Samnite: Heavily armoured with a sword or lance, rectangular shield, metal helmet, protective armour on right arm and left leg. Thracian: Not as heavily armoured – short curved sword, small round shield, arm guard on drone attacks essay, his right arm, leg guards and highly decorated helmet. Myrmillo (fish man): Fish shaped crest on helmet, rectangular shield, arm and leg guards. Retiarius (the net wielder): trident, tried to trap his opponent in his net, an arm and shoulder guard. Specialists: fought using daggers and lances, chariot fighters (essedarii), cavalrymen (eques), and some who fought blindfolded. Gladiators are extremely popular, especially with girls: Thracian Celadus is referred to as the “heart throb of the girls”.

Wealthy members of society paid for gladiatorial games, many of which are recorded in epigraphic evidence Marcus Tullius paid for a wild beast hunt and 20 pairs of gladiators. People gambled on the outcome of for essayedge cockfights. Drone. Mosaic showing a cockfight, on work for essayedge, the table in the image is a purse full of apartheid money which will go to the owner of the winning cockerel. Appear to have a varied diet. Seeds and pips from foods such as dates, figs and olives have been preserved in the volcanic ash. Work. Carbonised eggs, figs, loaves of bread and nuts including walnuts, hazelnuts and almonds have also been found.

Animal bones from sheep, pigs and geographie cattle attest to the consumption of meat. Evidence for the presence of seafood in the population’s diet comes from fish bones and the shells of scallops, cockles, sea urchins and cuttlefish. A team from Oxford university has been investigating remains from latrine pits and sewers at Pompeii. As latrines were usually in the kitchen they were used to work, dispose of phd dissertation both human excrement and food scraps. So far, mineralised seeds, small bones and for essayedge marine shell fragments have been found. Further work is 2014 being carried out as part of the work, Herculaneum Conservation Project which should provide more dietary sources. Professor Wilhelmina Jashekski, an archarologist specialising in the gardens of Pompeii, discovered that many houses had spaces for paragraphs when writing an essay the cultivation of work for essayedge figs, olives, cherries and other fruits and vegetables. Evidence for viticulture (grape growing) within Pompeii and hence for the drinking of papad business plan wine came from her discovery of a vineyard within the walls.

Artworks including frescoes and mosaics that feature foods such as fruit, fish, poultry, and game also provide information about diet at Pompeii and Herculaneum. Made of a fermented mixture of small fish such as sprats and anchovies combined with the for essayedge, entrails of a larger fish such as mackerel. Lighter, strained version was called liquamen Aulus Umbricius Scaurus made, exported and imported garum. Paragraphs When Writing An Essay. Small terracotta jars that once held garum have been found in Pompeii and Herculaneum; they have painted labels with info like contents, manufacturer, shipper and the recipient Excavators have uncovered stalls selling take away foods doused in this fish sauce. Wall paintings suggest banqueting is popular; depicting people eating and drinking, helped by slaves to remove outer clothing and vomiting An outdoor triclinium was found in the House of the for essayedge, Moralist at Pompeii, with three stone couches that were painted red and a marble topped table.

A bronze brazier and various serving and eating vessels were found nearby. “There was an absence of competitions 2014 formal dishware sets but an abundance of small grilling vessels (like barbeques) found in the residences studied, indicating that people were eating-and-running on the go” (Penelope Allison) Most evidence for clothing in Pompeii and Herculaneum come from work for essayedge artistic representations – this is pragmatic as statues and competitions frescoes may not depict what was actually worn. Men of rank and of equestrian class wore a knee-length belted tunic more commonly than the for essayedge, toga. The width of the phd dissertation, purple stripes on the front and back indicate the rank of the wearer. Pompeians dressed as the Romans dressed. Males wore a tunic, the basic item of clothing, which was something like a long t-shirt. It was worn under a toga. Status was distinguished by stripes and colours.

The tunica laticlavis or the senatorial tunic had broad stripes that extended from the shoulder to work for essayedge, the hem. Do You Indent. The toga praetexta of the for essayedge, curule magistrates was an off white toga with a broad purple border. Togas were worn for public and formal occasion s and usually in the Forum. The toga was the national dress of Rome. The toga was a large oval-shaped piece of cloth, usually wool, worn as the papad business plan, ‘standard’ Roman garment. For Essayedge. Women did not wear togas, only essay competitions 2014 when to signify disgrace. Stola: A long, sleeveless tunic, usually suspended at the shoulders from short straps, worn on work, top of another tunic. Worn by women of rank and as a symbol of marriage – enabled a woman to publicly proclaim her modesty and respect for tradition. Palla : Cloak worn over drone attacks in pakistan a woman’s head when outdoors. Work For Essayedge. Vittae: Woollen headbands. A bronze statue in student essay competitions 2014 the villa of Papyri at Herculaneum shows a woman wearing a tunic fastened in work for essayedge the style of a Greek peplos.

Painting in the lararium of the House of the Vettii, Pompeii, depicts both the tunica laticlavia and the toga praetexta worn by magistrates. Statue of Marcus Holconius Rufus depicted in military dress uniform and cuirass (breastplate armour) to depict his role as the papad, Military Tribune – it is work for essayedge likely he never wore this. Social occasion -“opportunity to satisfy not only the well-being of the body, but also of the spirit” Cantarella and Jacobelli. 4 Thermae discovered in Pompeii: The Stabian baths, the Forum baths, the Central baths (still under construction) and phd dissertation the Sarno baths. 2 thermae discovered in Herculaneum: The Suburban and Forum baths.

Divided into work, male and female sections or they were divided by time allocations. Decoration – often with a marine theme Visitors would also practice physical exercise and play sport, indulge in a range of therapies such as a massage, stroll in the gardens, listen to music and poetry recitals and read in the library, conduct business and receive invitations. Pornographic graffiti – Masseur in Pompeii is “accused of taking liberties with women”. Graffito describes Apelles the waiter dining “most pleasantly with Dexter the slave of Caesar” and then both screwing “at the same time”. They found so many lamps in the Forum baths and the Stabian baths – implies they were open at night Slaves carried their masters or mistresses oil, soda and strigil Women wore a two-piece or more modest costume, men wore leather trunks or nothing. Oldest and largest in Pompeii – date from as early as the 4th century BC. Earliest known hypocaust, installed in student essay competitions 2014 the 1st century BC. Iulius and work Annius refurbished the baths and added a laconium and a destrictarium. In the Augustan period a new was added, the palaestra extended and drone in pakistan a swimming pool added. Elaborate stucco decoration and work for essayedge fourth style wall paintings, mosaic floors.

An inscription in when i was the entrance courtyard states that they were financed by Marcus Nonius Balbus “architecturally notably vistibule” – Diess Waiting room = “one of the great finds of archaeology” -Deiss. It featured walls of varied – coloured marbles, framed white stucco panels containing bas-reliefs of naked warriors in various poses, winged cupids and a red spiral stucco frieze running around the room. A floor of black marble squares divided by work narrow bands of do you paragraphs when writing white marble. Magnificent wooden panelled doors. A vaulted roof with light coming through a glass-enclosed ceiling niche.

Thermae: Municipal or privately owned bath complexes. Apodyterium : Changing room with benches and shelves or niches for clothes. Laconium: A small round room useed as a sweat bath, usually with dry heat. Work For Essayedge. The room was heated either by a fireplace, hot stones or a brazier placed at the centre of the room. Tepidarium: A vaulted chamber designed to acclimatize visitors passing from the apodyterium to the caldarium, with benches where people could sit to drone attacks essay, get used to the heat and/or wash themselves. Calidarium: The principal bath chamber for a hot-water or steam bath, containing a communal, rectangular pool and for essayedge a basin. Frigidarium: A vaulted chamber for papad cold baths, containing one or more cold-water pools. Normally visited after the heated rooms. Hypocaust: Heating system, provided by a charcoal-burning furnace located at the back of the work, caldarium, hot air circulated through the interstices and under the marble floor which was raised about 70-90cm to drone, brick pillars and through air ducts built behind the walls. Work For Essayedge. Ceilings had grooves in the plaster which collected and channelled the condensation down the walls. Palaestra: Wrestling school/ gymnasium – Seneca ” I hear grunts of musclemen exercising”

Natatio: Open air swimming pool. Praefurnium : Heating room. Destrictarium: Scraping-room, where oil and sweat were removed from the body with strigils. Early inhabitants relied on water from the Sarno river “for the purposes of life, for pleasure, and for our daily use” (Vitruvius), deep wells and rain collecting cisterns for their water. NB: while they appear to be level, supply aqueducts decline 1-3m/km. At the time of Augustus, the papad business plan, imperial aqueduct at Misenum had a branch built to supply Pompeii (Sernium aqueduct) Water from this channel flowed into a main tank or water tower (castellum aquae) near the vesuvian gate. From the castellum, it was siphoned off into 3 main pipes that fed different areas of the work, city. Vitruvius discusses this process in his “On Architecture” stating that “in the reservoir are three pipes of equal sizes, and so connected that when the water overflows at the extremities, it is discharged into the middle one” The sloping terrain aided the water pressure that dispersed the water into drone attacks, various tanks all over Pompeii. Fourteen of these secondary tanks have been uncovered.

Many private homes were directly connected to this source of fresh, running water. For Essayedge. One of the three pipes supplied the forty two public fountains (nymphaea) found all over student essay 2014 Pompeii. Work. We have evidence of three fountains at Herculaneum. They were usually located at crossroads- obviously the essay, supply of water was more important than traffic movement, because, in work some places, the fountains obstructed the roadway. It is likely that most people in Pompeii lived within easy walking distance of a fountain. These public fountains provided a continuous supply of fresh water as there was an overflow system. The excess water ran down the streets and helped wash away the rubbish. Essays Apartheid. The fountains were quadrangular stone basis often decorated with gargoyles. Water flowed through lead pipes but the Pompeians were unaware this was a health hazard.

Another feature was the installation of castellum plumbeum, a lead pillar that acted as a pressure tap and ensured equal water pressure throughout the work for essayedge, town. Smaller houses still made use of cisterns At least 91 but probably more were connected by pipes to the main water supply In these houses, ornamental fountains, pools and other features became common Some houses even had private baths in the Augustinian period, such as the House of the Meander, the house of Paquius Proculus and the house of the Vestals. Pompeii was noisy, dirty, smelly and generally unhygienic with rubbish in the streets. The disposal of do you when waste matter and for essayedge rubbish constitutes a major problem for all societies whether ancient or modern. Like most Roman towns, Pompeii had public latrines To dispose of the waste matter from these, the Romans devised a system that involved water running continuously through a drainage channel that moved the waste matter along. A large public latrine with seating for twenty has been found in the north-west corner of the Forum at Pompeii There was a small anteroom and then the main toilet area containing seats. Roman toilets were communal with no private cubicles People sat side by side on benches above the flowing channel. Student. There was no toilet paper, only a sponge and a stick Public latrines were also located at the baths and the palaestra Some private homes in Pompeii and Herculaneum, such as the work for essayedge, House of the geographie, Painted Capitals, had latrines. These were often located near the kitchen area and were flushed by hand or connected to the house’s water supply from the aqueduct. For Essayedge. The waste matter drained away to cesspits beneath the roadway or to the sewage system Private toilets were usually only for one or two people, however some houses in Herculaneum catered for up to six users.

Pompeians took pleasure out of toilet humour as epigraphic evidence of graffiti describes the latrines as “Martha’s banqueting room” Purpose or function of the Basilica. It is a place for essay 2014 legal proceedings and business transactions Besides use for law the building would probably been used for other large gatherings such as auctions Exchange where businessmen or speculators met clients and signed contracts. What does the basilica reveal about Pompeian life? It reveals that law and justice was carried out in everyday life and for essayedge they had magistrates and a proper, lawful area to carry these duties out. Description and dimensions.

Standard plan of basilicas: Long rectangular central hall, flanked on either side by a colonnaded aisle and an apse at one end. Papad Business Plan. Pompeii Basilica: Covers an area of almost 5000 sq. For Essayedge. m Central hall was two stories with light filtering through the upper gallery Hellenistic-style building Five large doors (fitted with wooden shutters) that open onto a portico with four Ionic columns on the south-west corner of the forum and drone in pakistan its interior space was designed to impress the visitor with the majesty of work law Focus of interior= raised tribunal where the chief magistrates, the duumviri sat as judges Herculaneum Basilica Many buildings still buried under debris and i was essay one building stripped of its decorations in the 18 th century could have been the basilica although it may in fact be a shrine to the imperial cult We know the towns basilica building was rebuilt at the expense of the Proconsul Marcus Nonius Balbus, after the earthquake of AD62 and his statue connects him to this so-called ‘basilica’ building Basilica itself 37m by 60m and centered stood a statue of the work for essayedge, Emperor Vespanian This was flanked by niches which contained paintings depicting scenes from the life of Herakles or Hercules- the mythical founder of the town Interior space housed many bronze and geographie marble statues of emperors and a series of full length portrait statues of the Balbus family—serving a reminder to work, visitors of the Balbus family’s benefactions to their town. Location and location significance. Pompeii basilica—located at the southwest end of the Forum. Importance or significance as an Archaeological object. It is the oldest surviving Basilica in student essay competitions 2014 Italy- therefore it helps historians understand the area in which law enforcement was carried out as well as important business transactions. Key fact to for essayedge, remember: The two duoviri (magistrates) made judgments about. Unworthy Decurion’s Electoral candidates without the required qualifications Inappropriate behavior during elections Misuse of public funds Robberies Murder. They were responsible for sentencing but could only an essay give death penalty to foreigners and slaves. Small covered theatre seating up to 1,300 people Possibly used for musical recitals and displays of oratory.

Also suitable for literary readings and possibly used for meetings of various kinds. Purpose or Function of the Roman Temples. Regarded as the homes for gods and goddesses Place were correct rituals were carried out by the priests to honour the gods. What does the roman temples reveal about Pompeian life. Their dedication and belief in different gods and goddesses—religion. Description and dimensions. Consisted of a cella (chamber) to contain a statue of the deity, which stood before the altar. Location and location significance. Most temples were mainly located in work for essayedge or around the forum. Importance or significance as an Archaeological object.

Understanding of the worship for gods and goddesses- although their was little focus on personal religious devotion rather on drone attacks essay, the loyalty to Rome. Key fact to remember. Most temples at Pompeii came from the work for essayedge, Roman period of occupation and were dedicated to public cults, enabling the papad business, people to demonstrate their loyalty to work for essayedge, Rome. The temples were not places where regular services were held for large numbers of people little focus on essays african apartheid, personal religious devotion. Evidence (modern, ancient, written, epigraphical) 10 temples excavated in Pompeii, none in Herculaneum.

“Numerius Popidius Celsinus, son of Numerius, rebuilt at his own expense from it’s foundations the Temple of work for essayedge Isis, which had collapsed in an earthquake; because of his generosity, although he was only 6 years old, the essay, town councilors nominated him into for essayedge, their number free of charge.” Temple to the Egyptian Goddess Isis, built in essays the Theatre District around end of 2nd century, reflecting the trading links between Pomp and Alexandria. Unearthed in 1760, the unusual discovery of an Egyptian temple in Italy, as well as the vividness of the remains there sparked much excitement. Carbonised remains in pits and on the altar A dead body – presumed to be the priest Statuettes and well – preserved paintings A small structure (purgatorium) with steps leading down to for essayedge, a well was believed to have provided purifying water for ceremonies. Much of the sanctuary’s decoration was calculated to emphasize the foreignness of the goddess. A tablet inscribed with genuine hieroglyphs was discovered in fron of the essay, the temple itself Paintings depicting Egyptian gods: Anubis, Bes, Osiris, Harpocrates and Isis; and Egyptian landscapes peopled with strange creatures such as crocodiles, ibis and pygmies. Further evidence of the cult has been found at Herc, as well as other surrounding sea-port towns such as Stabiae and Puteoli. The popularity of the work for essayedge, cult is reflected in in pakistan the discovery of statuettes of work for essayedge Isis and several cult-rattles, sistra , found in private houses. Furthermore, some twenty lararia were decorated with images of Isis, and several individuals donated statuettes within the sanctuary enclosure: A marble statuette, executed in student archaizing style, depicts the goddess holding a sistrum in for essayedge her right hand and the key of the i was a baby, Nile in her left.

Traces of gilding can still be seen on the marble. For Essayedge. Inscription: “Lucius Caecilius Phoebus erected (this statue); space granted by drone attacks essay decree of the town councillors.” An inscribed pilaster, which once supported a (now lost) statuette. Inscription: “T Augustan Isis. Manilia Chrysa [fulfilled] her vow [willingly to the deserving deity.]” Statuette of Bacchus, as a version of the Egyptian god Osiris, depicts him with a panther and work for essayedge is displayed in a small niche in the rear wall of the temples, with ears in stucco on african, either side, symbolic of his responsiveness to prayer. Inscription on plinth:

Numerius Popidius Ampliatus, father, at work for essayedge his own expense.” (father of the child who nominally rebuilt the temple) Actor Norbanus was honoured with a portrait bust in papad the sanctuary, perhaps in connection with his appearances in the adjacent theatre. The notion that the cult’s popularity was the result of some kind of religious crisis, with the work, ride of a belief based cult requiring initiation at the expense of ‘traditional’ religious cults, is no longer tenable, although the cult was regarded with suspiscion at 2014 Rome until the 1st century AD. The reference to “worshippers of Isis” in electoral notices , however, certainly implies that at least some of her adherents had a sense of group identity not found with other cults. Both of these notices date from Pompeii’s last decade. Work For Essayedge. Road outside the essay, temple: “All the worshipppers of Isis call for Gnaeus Helvius Sabinus as aedile.” 50 metres from temple, Stabian Street: “Popidius Natalis, his client, with the worshippers of Isis, call for Cuspius Pansa as aedile.” Temple of Jupiter.

Marble plaque One side, 3 BC in Greek: “Gaius Iulius Hephastion, son of Hephastion, priest of the community of Frigi, dedicated to Jupiter Frigio in the 27th year of Caesar, in the month of work for essayedge Pharmouthi, on the Emperor’s day. Buildings associated with administration, religion and commerce were clustered around or near the essays on south african, Forum which was the chief meeting and trading place in the town. In Pompeii, the Forum was located were the main roads from for essayedge Naples, Nola and Stabiae met “a confused jumble of shops, workshops, crafts, residential and horticultural plots and essay houses across the whole city, with no real attempt at commercial segregation or concentration beyond the tendency of shops to line the main roads and horticulture to work, cluster on the margins” A. Wallace- Hadrill “because our ancestors handed down to us the custom of holding gladiatorial combats there; the columns must therefore be more widely spaced to in pakistan essay, allow a good view…the width will be two-thirds of the length, the shape thus being rectangular, a more convenient proportion for shows” Vitruvius “under the poticoes, the money-changers’ stalls, and work above, galleries…. [the dimensions had to] be proportionate to the size of the population, otherwise there will be a shortage of space, or the forum, too scantily filled, will look empty. The columns of the when a baby essay, upper storey will be one-third less in height than those below, which being more heavily laden must be stronger” Vitruvius Rectangular paved area 40m wide and 150m long . Features about 40 statues of leading citizens and the imperial family At time of eruption was undergoing a comprehensive, vigorous and for essayedge ambitious post-earthquake restoration Closed to wheeled traffic Access barred by drone attacks in pakistan large rectangular blocks fitted solidly in the ground Also evidence that the area could be closed off by grilled gates during certain events Deep wheel ruts on surrounding roads, attest to the amount of work traffic focused on the Forum Network of drains in the forum- drainage water flowed down the streets to student essay 2014, an outlet outside the walls Any day of the week the forum was busy—market day, however would have been filled with the lively bustle of shopkeepers and stall- holders, merchants, money-changers, customers, teachers and students and those attending the law courts of holding political office Frieze in the House of Julia Felix- depicts aspects of life in the Forum Forum buildings were roofed in red terracotta tiles Pompeian people covered the Forum walls, particularly the Basilica with painted notices “in vivid colors and large letter, the better to draw attention” M. Brion. Two theatres in Pompeii- essentially Greek in design Seating capacity in Pompeii largest theatre was 5000 Popular entertainment included comedies, tragedies and farces Horse shoe shaped auditorium- divided into three horizontal areas Section nearest to the stage (ima cavea) reserved for authorities and important visitors Highest section (summa cavea) appears to work for essayedge, have been occupied by women Other members of the public were seated in the media cavea Proscenium- back drop for the performance was ornamented with columns and statues and connected by three doors to an are behind, possibly by actors’ change rooms Adjacent to the theatres was a spacious foyer (quadriporticus) where spectators could stroll between performances Herculaneum- theatre of Herculaneum could hold about 2500 people Proscenium decorated with red and yellow porphyry columns and cornices of green serpentine with niches for statuary. Often organized for religious festivities to celebrate the dedication of a monument or achievement Entry was free to all but admission could be gained to the theatre only by having a small pieve of hone or ivory as a token which indicated where the holder was to sit “in the form of gish, birds, skulls or theatre masks” G. Capasso. Those with the image of the bird indicated the highest seats against the wall All classes attended the theatre although there is some doubt about slaves Theatres were noisy- audiences were farces, excitable and sometimes impatient Actors had a low social status but were popular Lucius Domitius Paris, a favourite of the threatre-loving emperor Nero was was called “Paris, the sweet darling” Grant Generally no female actors Women however, did seem to take part in when essay mimes and pantomimes and there is a graffito of an actress called Histrionica Rotica (erotica) perhaps a name inficative of what she did on stage Seems performances were infrequence and “tended to be put on for private groups” J.R. Green Wigs and masks were worn which amplified the voice Trapdoors, methods of making thunder, lightning, rain and smoke which signaled the appearance of divine apparitions Most popular amoung the people were the Oscan farces (Atellanae)—type of theatre Crude dialogue Pantomime- short amusing plots, ludicrous actions and obscene gestures Did not wear masks Performed bare foot Women sometimes did some form of a striptease in work response to the audience Actors accompanied by musicians Based loosely on mythological themes. Theatre complex at Pompeii and the magnificent theatre at Herculaneum, the number of theatrical motifs used in the decoration of well-to-do houses and the graffitii written by fans about local and visiting actors. Pompeii- Palaestra in Pompeii was opposite the amphitheatre and essay was a 107 by for essayedge 141 metre rectangle, surrounded by a portico on student, three sides, shade trees and enclosed by a wall. In the centre was a large swimming pool Herculaneum- occupied a whole block with a street frontage of for essayedge approximately 110m and depth of papad business 70m with a swimming pool in the shape of a cross about work for essayedge 50m in length with its cross arm about 30m.

Surrounded by trees (the roots have been found) and on south apartheid the field itself outside the pool was large enough for practicing all the traditional sports of work for essayedge athletics, wrestling, javelin and discus throwing. Its main entrance was “like a majestic columned cella, or inner portion of a temple… all was spacious and imposing” Deiss. African. Deiss also suggests that in work this room sacrafices were made before a competition and that there probably stood a magnificent statue of Hercules, patron of the town. African. In order to work, promote physical excellence, virtue and loyalthy to the state, Augustus formed associations of young people (collegia) who competed in athletic competitions or Youth games before their elders. Indent Paragraphs When Writing. Local unit in work Poempii was known as Iuventus Pompeiana and is believed to papad business plan, have comprised young men and women from the age of 11 to 17 This carefully inscribed travertine plaque was found in the Samnite Palaestra and probably commemorates it’s construction: “Vibius Atranus, son of work for essayedge Vibius, granted money in papad his will to for essayedge, the people of when i was a baby essay Pompeii; with this money, the Pompeian quaestor, Vibius Vinicius, son of Maras, by decree of the work, assembly, issued a contract for when a baby essay this to be built, and he himself approved it.” Buildings in Pompeii associated with gladiatorial contests were: The amphitheatre built c.70 BC at the expense of the work for essayedge, duoviri quinquennali, C. Quintius Valgus and Marcus Porcius The barracks dated to 62AD The quadriporticus The schola armaturium, depository of gladiatorial armour but also thought to be a school for the “Pompeian Youth”

The great amphitheatre. Could hold 20 000 people- suggest people from towns and countryside around Pompeii regularly attended performances Built in plan the south-east of the city—to avoid congestion because south-east was not so densely populated Access to work, higher levels (summa cavea) via two double and two single stairways. This was were women were seated Middle sections (media cavea)- reached by a covered gallery leading from the papad, western side Ima cavea- reserved for work city authorities and i was distinguished guests were divided from the rest of the cavea by a barrier 80cm high and work for essayedge the stone tiers in student essay competitions this area were larder and shallower to allow for the potable seats (bisella) of the elite who were protected from the activities in for essayedge the area by a parapet 2.18m high. Access to arena was via 2 paced vaulted tunnels Velarium were provided and part of the system by which the awning was anchored can still be seen at essay the top of the back wall. Types of work gladiators. There were different types of gladiators, some of whom included: the Samnite who was heavily armed with a sword or lance and a rectangular shield-he wore a metal helmet and drone attacks in pakistan protective armour on his right arm and left leg the Thracian was not as heavily armed-he carried a short curved sword and a small round shield and wore an arm guard on his right arm, leg guards and a highly decorated helmet the work, myrmillo (fish man) had a fish-shaped crest on phd dissertation geographie, his helmet, hence the name-he carried a rectangular shield and wore arm and for essayedge leg guards the retiarius (the net wielder) used a trident (a three-pronged spear) and tried to trap his opponent in his net-he wore an arm and drone essay shoulder guard. There were also specialist gladiators who fought using daggers and lances, chariot fighters (the essedarii), cavalrymen (eques) and even some who grappled with each other blindfolded. Staging a spectacle.

The games’ sponsors called editors munerum, were expected to fully or partly finance the production Possibly most famous was Cn. Alleius Nigidius Maius, described as ‘prince of the games’ Lanista- an entrepreneur who sold or rented his gladiators for the munus Going price for a gladiator depended on his success in the arena Sometimes a lanista not only ran his own ludus (school) but was able to successfully negotiate for the performance of well-known gladiators from work one of the a baby, imperial schools in Rome such as the Iuliani or Neroniani. Agents job was not easy as he had to be able to provide large numbers of gladiators, constantly recruit and train new members to replace those who died or retired, and deal with city authorities Advertising in form of edicta munerum was painted on walls and distributed by pamphlets sold on street. Programs included Name of magistrate and his official position Reason for the spectacle Number of work for essayedge gladiators Other events such as beast hunts Date (usually held over student competitions 2014 one day) Provision of work a velarium and drone essay sparsiones “Twenty pairs of gladiators of Decimus Lurcretius Satrius Valens… ten pairs of gladiators… will fight at Pompeii from April 8-14. Work. Fight with wild beast according to normal standards: Velarium will be used.” Because spectacles lasted from dawn till dusk, the aediles gave permission for itinerant pedlars to set up food and essays on south african drink stalls beneath the portico No remains of toilets—spectators probably used the latrines in the nearby Palaestra Spectacle began with a procession (pompa featuring musicians and all participants in ornate garments Morning session was often devoted to venationes (animal hunts) Venatores and bestiarii would fight against wild exotic animals or animal would be pitted against work for essayedge, animal Probably served to business plan, increase the bloodlust of the spectators Gladiators were subjected to a weapons check Tiro or T in the graffiti—gladiator was freeborn or involved in his first fight Missum or M in the graffiti—editor or emperor to grant mercy, usually took notice of wishes of spectators Vicit or V in graffiti—victorious gladiators, they received a palm as a sign of victory and money, the amount decided on work, before the contest Gladiators were prisoners of business plan war, slaves, freedmen, criminals condemned to death and occasionally ingenui, fallen on hard times Majority were slaves References to free men in the inscriptions “six free men to work for essayedge, twenty slaves appeared on drone attacks in pakistan, one occasion in work for essayedge the area” “the same year witnessed gladiatorial displays on phd dissertation, no less magnificent scale than before, but exceeding all precedent in work the number of distinguished women and senators disgracing themselves in the area” Tacitus These instances should not be considered the norm- women fighting “But then he was a gladiator! It is this that transforms these fellows into hyacinths!” Juvenal Discussing how they were adored by women- enough for them to leave their husbands and attacks in pakistan essay children Many gladiators finished their career and went on to become instructors or even lanista. A major archaeological find was the gladiatorial equipment such as helmets, greaves and weapons found in 1766-67 in work the gladiators’ barracks. What remains are fifteen complete helmets, six single greaves, five pairs of geographie greaves, three shoulder guards and for essayedge a small round shield. Many of student these items are lavishly embossed and it is thought that they were used in the ceremonial parades rather than as fighting equipment.

Gladiators depicted on a tomb in Pompeii—enabling historians to understand the different armour and outfits worn by gladiators The gladiatorial troupe of Aulus Suettius Certus will fight at Pompeii on 31 May. Work For Essayedge. There will be a hunt and awnings. I Was A Baby. Good luck to all Neronian games (CILV IV.1190) This beast-fighting will be on 28 August and Felix will fight the bears (ILS 5147) Wallace Hadrill describes the Pompeian houses as “an interlocking jigsaw of large, medium and small houses”Houses- Generic. Cicero asserted the importance of houses stating that “the most sacred, the most hallowed place on earth is the home” The House of the work for essayedge, Faun was a 2 nd Century AD Roman house which is papad plan said to reflect the luxurious aristocracy of this Roman period more than any other house At an for essayedge, area of approximately 3,000 square meters, it is the largest Pompeian private house Decorations- elaborate floor mosaics and magnificent wall paintings. Mosaics made from tiny, cut and when coloured stones called tesserae. One mosaic depicts a Nile River landscape. (Egyptian Influence?) Famous battle between Alexander the Great and Darius (Persian King) during the conquest of Asia – This mosaic covered the floor of an exedra that opened onto work, the peristyle of the house Alexander is seen to the left and Darius stands on a chariot to the right, both are surrounded by attacks in pakistan essay their warring men. The mosaic measures slightly less than 20 m 2 It is thought that the mosaic is a copy of a painting featuring the same battle, as Pliny the Elder mentions a famous painting of the battle between Alexander and Darius Possible extrapolations from the mosaic include the fact that society was militaristic as well as that the owner of the house was a decedent of Alexander The mosaic of work Bacchus riding a lion was found in one of the drone attacks essay, triclinia of the house. Bacchus is portrayed as a winged child drinking from a large cup This mosaic can be corroborated with a frescoe in the House of The Centenary: Bacchus and Mt Vesuvius which also portrays Bacchus is the god of for essayedge fertility and wine.

Grand entrance hall. Pavement was written in traditional Latin greeting HAVE, which welcomed guests to the house. Shops at the front and two atria. Named after the small bronze statue of the dancing faun found in papad plan the impluvium of the larger atrium. Fauns are spirits of untamed woodland, which literate and Hellenized Romans often connected to Pan and Greek satyrs, or wild followers of the Greek god of work wine and drone in pakistan essay agriculture, Dionysus and his Roman counterpart Bacchus. It is work purely decorative sculpture of a high order: “the pose is light and phd dissertation graceful,” Sir Kenneth Clark observed Two gardens, one average size and the other half the area of the house. For Essayedge. Large peristyle had a spacious kitchen with high ceilings. Windows released cooking smoke and odours. Four rooms interpreted as summer and when essay winter dining rooms Bath complex and stables also found. The House of the Tragic Poet is work a typical 2nd century BC Roman house in Pompeii, Italy famous for its elaborate mosaic floors and frescoes depicting scenes from Greek mythology, hence it is often also referred to drone attacks in pakistan, as The Homeric Houseor The Iliadic House Vestibulum The vestubula floor near the porta antica – front door – contains a mosaic of a black dog spotted with white, represented on the pavement in mosaic, collared and chained, and in the attitude of barking.

The collar is of red leather. Below the animal is inscribed, in very legible characters, “cave canem” or “beaware of the work, dog”, a sentence, probably, not uncommonly placed at the entrance of Roman houses, as we can extrapolate from a Latin passage from Petronius Arbiter that guard dogs were common place. The mosaic also depicts an drone in pakistan, interpretation of Cerberus, the fierce 3 headed dog that guards the gates of work for essayedge Hell in Greek mythology a Greek, Hellenistic influence indicating trade, social class as well as education. The mosaic is timeless, as according to Beard, it “does still stand as a warning notice at the entrance to apartheid, many a modern house” Greek Frescoes in the Atrium The atrium was the focal point of art in the House of the work, Tragic Poet, containing large scale mythological frescoes; each approximately four feet square, making figures slightly smaller than life-size. On the south wall of the atrium were two images—one ofZeus and Hera on phd dissertation geographie, Mount Ida and another of Aphrodite (now almost entirely destroyed). The image of work Zeus and Hera celebrates a woman’s loss of virginity—a transition from indent writing an essay youth to womanhood—as Hera’s veil is work for essayedge clearly removed from when i was essay her head, symbolically exposing her face. The image of Aphrodite was most likely a nude, outdoor image with other figures.

The west wall of the work for essayedge, atrium shows images ofAmphitrite and Poseidon and of Achilles and The first image, sometimes informally called the abduction of Amphitrite, shows Eros and when i was a baby Poseidon fighting, with multiple nymphs surrounding and nude. The second, known as the Wrath of Achilles, depicts the storyline of the Iliad, with Achilles angered from losing Briseis. From corroboration of the frescoes in work for essayedge the atrium of the House of the Tragic Poet, one can extrapolate the collective observation that international discourse between Greece and Rome was common through trade, and essays apartheid Roman society had a taste for the exotic as they often ‘borrowed’ aspects of Greek society such as religion. Pompeian society did hold an utmost admiration for the Greeks, as according to Vitruvius, “the Greeks were more refined, and possessed greater wealth” Cicero elaborates upon this with his anthropological observation that “Generally speaking, one tries to imitate the ways of the illustrious people” Tablinium The tablinium floor, was decorated with an elaborate mosaic image. Here, actors gather backstage preparing for a performance, as one character dresses and another plays a flute.

Other characters surround a box of masks to be used during the performance. Because this mosaic is the centerpiece of the room and therefore seemingly important, modern archaeologists came up with the name “House of the work for essayedge, Tragic Poet” to business, describe the entire villa. Next to this was a mosaic of Athena and Zeus, this was most likely supposed to portray Athena’s birth scene. Peristyle To the left of the peristylewas a fresco known as the Sacrifice of Iphigenia, in which Iphigenia is work for essayedge taken by when a baby Ulysses and Achilles to be sacrificed just before Artemis delivers a deer to be sacrificed in work for essayedge her place. Attacks In Pakistan. Observations/ Extrapolations Little is known about the owners of the House of the Tragic Poet, however one assertion- founded on the extensive evidence of Greek influence- was that they were indeed foreigners from Greece. NB: a praedia is work a block of land. The Praedia of Julia Felix was a private house divided into insulae containing a bath system that was rented to the public Epigraphic evidence of an inscription states: “To let, for the term of papad five years, from the for essayedge, thirteenth day of next August to the thirteenth day of the sixth August thereafter, the Venus bath, fitted up for the best people, shops, rooms over shops, and second-storey apartments in the property owned by Julia Felix, daughter of Spurius” From this one can extrapolate that Julia Felix was a business woman, landlady, letter of the three baths, and a woman of attacks in pakistan high status; enabling an historian to make the work, collective observation that women were able to hold high standing roles within Roman society such as owning and managing property, such assertion is reinforced by the fact that the largest estate in Pompeii was in fact owned by a woman. Student Essay Competitions 2014. The Praedia was one of the largest in Pompeii, with orchards and gardens occupying most of the space; the house takes up 1/3 of the estate. It is situated on the Via dell’Abbadanza and appears to have been reconstructed after the earthquake of 62 ADa the imperative for reconstruction after the for essayedge, earthquake is a possible reason for Julia Felix to have to let out the baths (make sufficient funds for repairs) Wallace Hadrill asserts that without the epigraphic evidence, one would not suspect that the elegantly decorated garden and nymphaeum attached to the baths were fore commercial use. The private bathing facility was elaborate and intended for the “best people” (epigraphic inscription) Venus bath: Venus is competitions a roman God, however her private lararium indicated veneration of the Egyptian god Isis. She does not publish her affiliation with the notorious “cult of Isis” because, contextually, it was not socially acceptable.

Artwork in the Praedia of Julia Felix Frescoes found generally depicted scenes of everyday life, generally shown in the forum. Frescoes/Friezes- difference is that a frieze circles the whole room like a boarder. Freizes found in the house depict aspects of the mundane. One is 70cm high and 31m long circulating the entire atrium It depicts commercial activities in the forum such as: Shop keepers selling their wares such as vegetables, cloth, bronze pans and shoes Male figures reading the latest news from a panel A woman accompanying a servant girl giving arms to an old man leaning on a stick A teacher whipping a student in front of work for essayedge his classmates The frieze is useful for historians studying daily Pompeian life as well as allowing one to extrapolate the importance of the essays on south african apartheid, forum as the epicentre of daily Pompeian life. It contained a large grotto style triclinium completed with a private nymphaea The Praedia is peppered with Egyptian influence: Walls of the grotto decorated with Nile scenes Peristyle which some scholars perceive to represent a branch of the Nile delta. Garden – viridarium – contained a small lararium or shrine to Isis Her house is useful to work, show Social structure Role of women Everyday life Leisure activities Egyptian influence The economy, commercial activity.

Overview The remains of about 100 villas have been excavated, some only drone essay a few hundred meters apart, scattered across the Sarno plain. Villas varied in scale, architectural features and luxury and unlike urban domus, they did not look inward but were designed to take the work for essayedge, view of the plan, sea or the rolling countryside They were built outside the walls of the city Villas built purely for leisure- otium Often built on different kevels with terraces and belvederes, a subterranean portico – cryptoporticus – expansive gardens, groves, grottoes, large water displays, thermal baths and large swimming pools Villa of the Papyri: Herculaneum On the coastal outskirts of work for essayedge Herculaneum was the epitome of a villa built for leisure. Believed to have belonged to the Pisones, a notable Roman aristocratic family, who loved to surround themselves with the most refined friends, philosophers and men of drone letters. Capasso stated that the villa “remains one of the greatest testaments to the cultural level reached by the romans during the Hellenistic age” This maritime villa was sheltered from the north winds by the woods of Vesuvius and cooled by for essayedge the sea breezes in the heat of summer. According to Amadeo Maiuri it had “commanded all the competitions, freedom and breadth of a vista that its fortunate position could offer” Its dimensions were 245 by 137m A colonnade of 36 columns circled the peristyle Extensive gardens – filled with statues and fountains – the water of which supplied by work a system of hydraulic pipes A terrace overlooking the sea ran the entire length of the villa and circular belvedere, giving a 360? view and paved with a fine mosaic A total of 87 marble and bronze sculptures from the Greek archaic period Some originals and other superb copies were found in the garden and various rooms of the villa The sculptures included: Gods Nymphs Famous operators and philosophers Athletes Forrest animals It also contained the essays on south african apartheid, largest papyrus library (from where it got its name) containing 1800 rolls, almost entirely the writings of Epicurean philosophers and more specifically, the work of Philodemus of Gadara. Their content covered such topics as poetry, ethics, music, love, madness and death. Other villas: suburban villas The two Pompeian suburban villas: The Villa of Mysteries The Villa of Diomedes Were built on several levels providing the ideals of indoor/outdoor living. The villa of work Diomedes had a series of terraces on several levels overlooking “the largest garden in the whole Pompeian region” (M. Grant) Both villas had their own bath suits with a succession of frigidarium, tepidarium and plan cadarium.

Main commercial thoroughfare in Pompeii was the road that ran from the Forum past the ampitheatre to the Sarnian gate: This was the Via dell’ Abbadanza Remains of shops can be recognized by the wide openings – designed to entice potential customers – where a wooden shutter slid back during the day Many had a mezzanine – accessed by internal stairs – this was the living quarters of the work, shopkeeper. There was no order or collective to essay, the shops, all interspersed with grand residences behind. Architectural evidence of a joint in the wall where a beam would have been attached for a sign that would have featured a picture of the product A collective observation that can be extrapolated from this is that: Literacy was not universal a people sent their slaves out to buy food a also multiple foreigners, as Pompeii was a port town. Alas, there is no evidence of for essayedge this painting and such is mere deduction. Food outlets About 200 public eating and drinking places have been identified in Pompeii Some were merely fast food snack bars, and are recognized by marble covered counters or thermapolia in which large dolia, holding hot food and drinks, were encased. In most places, food was taken away or eaten standing up a crude terracotta bowls; roughly made; not fired well; very brittle; only purpose is to be temporary vessels for food. Reused if intact, but lots of broken bowls found. When I Was A Baby Essay. One of the largest food outlets found in Herculaneum, opposite the palaestra had two spacious entrances.

Its counter was “faced with irregular pieces of polychrome marble and for essayedge eight large jugs (inserted into the counter itself)… other jugs and amphorae may have been used for other types of oil or for sauce. When. A stove behind the work, counter was in use: varied dishes were kept simmering in terracotta casseroles over the charcoal fire” (Diess) Wine bars and taverns- cauponae/ popina/ hospitum / stabulum A popina sold food and drink, these were the ones which were generally associated with drunken violence. The term thermopolia is often associated with this type of inn/bar Caupona did not sell hot food- therefore no dolia Cauponae were scattered throughout both towns but in Pompeii they were more densely clustered near the entrance gates and around the ampitheatre. Indeed, places where people congregate – in this case, before gladiator fights or passing travelers – thus, geographical evidence reveals they were more abundant near concentrated areas of population. Moreover, the business, hot weather in summer called for the need for refreshment And indeed, Pompeians were heavy drinkers Hospitum was a guest house- drinks and accommodation – “we pissed in the bed” indicates it enabled accommodation Stabulum was an inn or tavern which housed people as well as their animals. Bars contained amphorae, bronze cauldrons Epigraphic evidence reveals “cheers! We drink like wineskins” and for essayedge “Sauvis demands full wine jars please, his thirst is enormous” “you sell water and you drink the pure wine yourself” corroborative epigraphic evidence reveals two people fighting over a drink. Alas, most drank their wine diluted they mixed it with water and added other ingredients such as “honey, milk, ashes, lime, almonds and sea water” (M.

Grant) They also sweetened sour wine with “a sweet tasting lead acetate syrup made by boiling the dregs of wine in lead lined copper pans for several days” (M. Grant) Another Pompeian favourite was hot wine in geographie winter. One of the better known establishments was a caupona owned by a woman named Asellina situated on work, the Via dell’Abbodanza who employed foreign waitresses called Smyrna, Maria and Argle as indicated by electoral posters giving their names (some believed they were prostitutes) Sums showing customer debts were scrawled on the inside wall of her inn while political slogans, painted on the outside walls revealed her interest in the forthcoming elections. Electoral posters can be corroborated by others found in the city. Do You When Writing. An inscription found at the entrance of a bar states “Hedone says: drinks cost an for essayedge, as here, but you get a better drink if you spend two. If you hand over geographie four asses, you can drink Falernian (Imported wine) Villa Regina was found with 18 dolia with a capacity of 10,00 litres.

Food Evidence of drink in Pompeii and work Herculaneum is found both within and outside the walls of the cities. Archaeological evidence enables us to identify the foods that were available to the population. It appears that they had a varied diet. Essays On South Apartheid. Seeds and pops from foods such as dates, figs, and olives have been preserved in the volcanic ash Carbonised eggs, figs, loaves of bread and nuts including walnuts hazelnuts and almonds have also been found. Animal bones from sheep, pigs and cattle asset to the consumption of work meat. Evidence for the presence of seafood in student essay the populations diet comes from fish bones and the shells of scallops, cockles sea urchins and cuttlefish. A team from Oxford University has been investigating remains from latrine pits and sewers at Pompeii. As latrines were usually in the kitchen they were used to dispose of both human excretement and for essayedge food scraps.

So far, mineralized seeds, small bones, and marine shell fragments have been found. Further work at Herculaneum is being carried out as part of the i was, Herculaneum Conservation Project, which should provide more dietary evidence. Professor Wilhelmina Jashemski, an archaeologist specializing in work the gardens and horti of Pompeii, discovered that many houses had spaces for the cultivation of figs, olives, cherries and other fruit and veg. Evidence for attacks in pakistan viticulture within Poompeii, and hence for the drinking of wine, came from her discovery of a vineyard within the for essayedge, walls. Artworks including frescoes and mosaics that feature foods such as fruit, fish, poultry and game also provide information about diet at Pompeii and indent Herculaneum. However these sources are limited through people’s desire to portray a glamourized and exotic representation of work for essayedge food, such as Greek portrayals indicating influence. viii.

Influence of Greek and Egyptian Cultures. Statues – many were copies of Greek originals (statues of Doryphoros, a cpy of the phd dissertation, statue Polyclete) Mosaics (the Alexander Mosaic in The House of the Faun depicting Alexander the Great and a Persian King Darius at the Battle of Issus, a copy of a Hellenistic painting by Philoxenos of Eretria) Many murals depict characters and scenes from Greek myths. Theatre – features of the large theatre reflect Hellenistic design The horse shoed shaped terraces The colonnaded quadriporticus Doric columns Palaestrae – large open colonnaded spaces reflect Greek design Many buildings feature Greek architectural elements: Doric, Ionic and Corinthian columns Peristyle (e.g. the House of the Faun) Colonnade. Herculaneum probably named for Greek hero Herakles, Roman Hercules. Images of Hercules found in Pompeii ( statuette in temple of Isis) and Herculaneum (in a public fountain, house and wineshop) Demeter, Apollo – evidence of worship of work Greek Gods Sanctuary to student competitions, Dionysus found near amphitheatre; Villa of the Mysteries secret Dionysian cult. Nile scenes in mosaics (threshold mosaic from the House of the Faun depicting crocodiles, hippopotamus and ibis) Wall paintings with Egyptian motifs (The temple of for essayedge Isis has Egyptians – style landscapes and scenes from Egyptian mythology) Garden Art – the water feature in essays african apartheid the Praedia of Julia Felix represents a Delta branch in the Nile, as does her grotto style dining room. The cult of work Isis – temple Egyptian gods are dedicated in shrines (the household shrine to Isis from the House of the Golden Cupids features Anubis, Harpocrates, Isis and Sarapis) Cults of on south african apartheid Isis and Sarapis popular because they offered ability of an afterlife. (NB: Primarily refer to public buildings)

Temples at Herculaneum are yet to be excavated, whereas there are a number of temples and work sanctuaries in when Pompeii. They were regarded as the homes for gods and goddesses and for essayedge consisted of a cella to contain the statue of the phd dissertation, deity which stood before an for essayedge, altar. Most temples at Pompeii came from the essays on south, Roman period of occupation and work for essayedge were dedicated to public cults, enabling the people to demonstrate their loyalty to Rome. There was little focus on personal religious devotion. The domestic hearth or fireplace was the centre of the household and it was here that the paterfamilias celebrated the religious practices connected with the family and the household. The Roman goddess Vesta (Greek counterpart Hestia) was worshipped, along with three other deities: The lares: household deities that protected the family. Papad Plan. They were headed by the family sporit, lar familiaris . They had their own shrine in a cupboard.

Any food dropped at a meal was offered to work, the Archaeological report shows evidence of lares offerings: “Small pits containing high concentrations of cremated bones and do you indent when writing an essay carbonised plant remains were found in the gardens of … and also the two peristyle gardens of …(House of Amarantus). The bones include parts of piglets and the heads and feet of work cocks. The carbonised remains include stone – pine cones, figs, dates, grapes and hazel nuts. Other items include a piece of poppy seed bread or pastry. Drone Essay. These remains have been interpreted as offerings to the Lares. Work. Several classical authors refer to such offerigns and they are depicted on wall paintings at writing an essay lararia in Pompeii but these are the first occasions such remains have been found in for essayedge the ground. ” The genius : the god of the male line of descent. The god was worshipped on the birthday of the paterfamilias; sometimes represented as a snake. The penates: the gods of the larder or food store. Their statuettes were placed on the table at do you indent paragraphs when an essay meal times. Every home also had its own shrine or lararium usually located in the atrium where the work for essayedge, whole family carried out their daily worship. Prominent families kept wax mask-like images or portraits of their ancestors, and their family honoured these.

Excavations at Pompeii and Herculaneum have revealed a society that was tolerant of worship of foreign gods and the practices of imported cults. I Was A Baby Essay. These tended to have a more personal focus with the promise of an afterlife. The cult of Isis was very popular in Pompeii. Another foreign cult was the worship of the Thracian fertility god Sabazius, who was equated with the Graeco-Roman god Dionysus/Bacchus. In 1954 a shrine to this god was unearthed. It consisted of a simple stone altar with two terracotta vases that probably contained offerings. Pompeian society was tolerant of the worship of foreign gods and the practices of imported cults. These tended to have a more personal focus as they provided the promise of an afterlife. See the Temple of Isis. Another foreign cult was the worship of the Thracian fertility god Sabazius, who equated with the Graeco-Roman god Dionysus/ Bacchus. For Essayedge. A shrine to this god was unearthed consisting of a simple stone altar with 2 terracotta vases that probably contained offerings.

Another discovery attesting to indent when, the diversity of foreign religious practices, was found by Maiuri in 1938 at the house of the Four Styles. Here he unearthed an ivory statuette of the Hindu goddess Lakshmi, goddess of beauty, fertility and wealth. Her worship could have come to Pompeii through trade links. Small amount of evidence suggests the presence of Jews – biblical names of Mary and Martha found on walls and inscriptions on some amphorae. Our main sources of information about death and burial are the tombs and their inscriptions in for essayedge the necropolis (Latin translation: city of death) or cemeteries located outside the city gates. Competitions 2014. No excavated tombs at for essayedge Herculaneum. The majority of tombs in the streets that cluster Pompeii’s entrances are Roman, although a small number of Samnite burials have been excavated. Most of the funerary monuments are found on Sepulchre Street leading from the Herculaneum Gate and the Nucerian Way and near other gateways. The tombs are of various types, indicating that the indent paragraphs, rich and poor were interred close together.

The rich had imposing sepulchral monuments demonstrating their important place in the public life of Pompeii. For example: The tomb of Umbricius Scaurus shows scenes from gladiatorial games given in his honour. The tomb of Faustus and his wife Nevoleia Tyche was decorated with a scene of a funeral ceremony and a ship lowering its sails. These tombs were decorated in a variety of for essayedge Graeco – Hellenistic and Roman – Italic styles. Inscriptions on the monuments give us the name and rank of the person and provide us with vital info about their lives, public works and activities. It should be remembered though, that the inscriptions are evidence of how tomb owners wanted to drone attacks in pakistan, be remembered, not necessarily of what they were really like. Another problem with evidence from the tombs is that very few children or slaves were represented, while there is much representation of work freedmen and women. Selection of tomb inscriptions: To Septumia, daughter of Lucius. Granted by decree of the town councillors a burial place and 2000 sesterces for the funeral. Antistia Prima, daughter of Publius, her daughter, built (this monument.) To Marcus Obellius Firmus, son of Marcus, aedile, duumvir with judicial power. The town councillors decreed him a burial place and 5 000 sesterces for his funeral; the inhabitants of the country district decreed him 30 pounds of frankincense, and when i was a baby essay a shield, and for essayedge their attendants 1000 sesterces for perfumes and a shield.

To Gnaius Alleius Eros, freedman of Maius, appointed as Augustalia , free of charge, to whom Augustales and inhabitants of the country district decreed 1000 sesterces for his funeral rites. Lived 22 years. Helle, slave girl, lived 4 years. Geographie. Lucius Manlius Saturnius, son of Quartus, of the Romilian tribe, Ateste of his hometown, bodyguard, performed military service for 5 years, lived for 24 years. His brother set this up. Audia, daughter of work Numerius, aged 112. 3. Investigating, reconstructing and phd dissertation geographie preserving the past. a. Changing methods and contributions of nineteenth and twentieth century archaeologists to our understanding of Pompeii and Herculaneum. The Grandfather of modern archaeology; put a stop to previous destructive methods. In 1860, with the unification of Italy (the Kingdom of Naples was annexed to the Kingdom of work Italy) and the demise of the Bourbon dynasty, a new era in Pompeian excavation began.

Giuseppe Fiorelli was appointed as inspector of the phd dissertation geographie, excavations and three years later was given direction of the Naples museum as well as the superintendency of Pompeii. “It is hard to exaggerate his impact on the history of Pompeii. Whether he was primarily a political pragmatist, administrator or arch innovator, Fiorelli arguably remains the individual who had the greatest impact upon the way in which Pompeii has been both excavated and perceived.” (Cooley) To some extent, his innovations were the result of a gradual process which had begun ten years before. Fiorelli wanted to: Introduce a more cohesive and systematic approach to work for essayedge, excavation as a whole Ensure more effective controls on publication of the results of excavation Open the site up to more vistors Incorporate the site into essays on south, the teaching program at work for essayedge naples university Set up an student essay competitions 2014, aquarium on the sit to for essayedge, house those more ordinary objects wanted at the Naples museum. He was responsible for introducing a uniform numbering and naming system by dividing the topography of the site – including those areas not yet excavated – into nine regions ( regiones ) each of 22 town blocks (insulae ) and entrances to shops and houses within each insula. He allocated a number to phd dissertation, each, instead of the arbitrary naming of the that had been the practice. For example, the House of the Faun, which had eight different names, became VI – xii.

2, 5, 7. This system made it easier to draw up plans and to work, locate individuals structures. Although lay visitors to the site today still refer to houses by a name, as does this text, Fiorelli’s system, with some modifications, is still used by those working on the site and in their publications. He introdued a more systematic approach to excavation, unlike the haphazard digging of his predecessors who had excavated wherever the site seemed most promising. He organised a workforce of 500 people and, following the drone, line of the for essayedge, roads, connected different roads parts of the site. According to August Mau, ” he first set about clearing the when i was essay, undisturbed places between the excavated portions; and hen in this way the for essayedge, west part of the city had been laid bare, he commenced to work systematically from the excavated part to the east.” He realised that his predecessors had lost or overlooked a lot of precious information by digging straight down through the layers of debris and pumice to the ground level of AD 79, extracting anything of interest and shovelling the material aside. Artefacts had been documented with no understanding of on south their context, and information about collapsed upper storeys was lost. He imposed a system of slowly uncovering the houses rom the top down, collecting data to help restore the ancient buildings and their interiors and gain a better understanding of the for essayedge, process of burial. (Descourdres) ” Although Fiorelli’s method was still a afar cry from modern statigraphioc digging techniques…it was a first step in the right direction.” Wherwever possible, he left paintings in situ, although the best continued to be cut from the wall and shipped off to Naples. Other objects were removed for papad plan display to a small antiquarium built on the site.

He made a discovery that contributed more than anything else to his fame: his recognition of the for essayedge, significance of a baby essay cavities in the deposits of hardened ash as impressions of the victims’ bodies. With the work, passage of time, the ash had solidified around the papad business, body contours as it decomposed, and an impression was left. He deviseda method of injecting liquid plaster into the cavities, enabling him to recover not only the shapes of humans and animals as they died, but other objects made of perishable material. Today, a similar process of casting is used, but plaster has been replaced with a semi-transparent epoxy resin. Vittorio Spinazzola, as director, was more interested in “the realities of town planning”(Etienne) than with the possibility of “extraordinary discoveries.” Between 1912 and work for essayedge 1914, he chose to move his investigations away from the northern quarters of the town and focus on a 600 metre length of the business plan, main commercial road – the Via dell’Abbondanza or the Street of for essayedge Abundance – that ran west to essays apartheid, east through Pompeii., linking the forum with the amphitheatre and the Sarnian gate. This resulted in work for essayedge a more unified approach, and these “New Excavations” as they came to be called, “revealed a Pompeii that had been scarcely dreamed of” (Etienne) with its election posters, popular paintings and numerous shops and phd dissertation workshops, such as the Laundry of work for essayedge Stephanus and the Inn of Asellina, interspersed with fine houses. His meticulous excavation method showed how the buildings along the main east – west street had been buried, and allowed him to reconstruct their facades as fully as possible, particularly the upper floors, with their windows, balconies and roofs. Essays On South. Occasionally, when he found a building of particular interest, he would dig past the facade into work for essayedge, the insula. In this way, he discovered houses such as that of the Cryptoporticsus and Octavio Quartio (or Loreius Tibertinus) with its extensive gardens and waterworks. However, criticisms can be made of Spinazzola’s work. By focussing on unearthing frontages only, he had to shore them up to prevent them collapsing from the earth behind.

Also, he could only guess at the exact function of many shops. Spinazzola’s directorship was caught up in the bureaucratic reorganisation and political changes associated with the rise of the Facist government of do you an essay Mussolilni in Italy, and, in 1932 was forced to retire. However, by work that time “the town’s most important business artery had been cleared over almost its entire length.” (Descourdres) It was left to his successor, Mauiri, to when essay, bring it to the condition visitors enjoy today. Maiuri took over the directorship of work for essayedge Pompeii in 1924 and remained in charge until his retirement in 1961. He has often been described as the most productive, determined and controversial director in the history of excavations.

Piovene: “this prince among archaeologists”. Wallace – Hadrill: “towering figure…endlessly energetic, learned and imaginative”; “his massive presence lies behind the excavation, publication and interpretation of the majority of houses” His most productive period corresponded with the Fascist government of Mussolini – the twenties through to the outbreak of World War II – when Italian archaeology as a whole benefited from an injection of state funds. Excavations ceased during the war, and when i was Pompeii suffered serious damage from 160 bomb dropped by the allies in work for essayedge 1943. Digging was resumed in 1947, and 1951 until 1961 there was intensive activity at Pompeii with over a baby ten insulae totally cleared. However, much of the latter work was hurried and chronically underfunded. Despite his wide – ranging excavations, by the time he retired, 26 hectares of the total site of 66 hectares were still not excavated. Summary of Achievements. Continued work of Spinazzola along the Via dell’Abbondanza in an attempt to uncover the insulae on either side and gain a view of the whole Excavated the House of Menander with its famous silver treasure (118 pieces) Completed work on for essayedge, the Villa of the Mysteries outside the wall of Pompeii Studied the structure of the walls and indent when an essay towers Cleared and restored the area behind the Triangular Forum which revealed the terrace houses on the steep flank of the Pompeian mound. Deepened the excavations at significant locations (Forum, tmeples and oldest houses) to investigate pre – Roman levels. Work For Essayedge. Restored public buildings such as the tribunal of the basilica and the roofs of many houses Supervised the re-openings of the excavation at Herculanuem Discovered the house of the Bi-centenary in Herc – the towns largest and richest residence – containing 18 wax tablets Resumed excavations after WWII with the Villa Imperiale discovered under the antiquarian and geographie a pre Roman to Dionysus found in a bomb crater Explored regions I and II and for essayedge brougt to on south african, light the House of Ajulia Felix which had been originally uncovered in 1775 and then reburied Cleared the necropolis outside the Nucerian Gate.

Influences on Maiuri’s interpretations of the finds. Mussolini and the Fascist’s ruthlessly exploited the for essayedge, potential of Italy’s imperial past in order “to create a model for a new imperialist Italy” (Wallace Hadrill) Archaeology and Mauriri benefited from the dictator’s financial support. Whether consciously or not, Maiuri followed the political line by excavating glorious monuments such as the student competitions 2014, House of Menander and the Villa of Mysteries, which were a testament to the magnificence of for essayedge Italy’s past. When he excavated the when, House of for essayedge Menander between 1927 and student essay 1933, the evidence, (wall paintings and silver treasure hoard) convinced him of ownership at the highest level of society, probably a member of the for essayedge, Poppaea gens to whom Poppaea Sabina, Nero’s second wife, belonged. Student. Pliny the Elder had described how refined Romans collected the finest antique silver decorated with themes from classical Greek mythology and work poetry. Painter: “In Maiuris interpretation the House of Menander became an illustration of Pliny’s text.” After 1926, he became interested in the historical debate engendered by Michael Rostovtzeff’s The Social and Economic Hisotry of the essay competitions, Roman Empire in which he focused on the rise of the commercially and work industrially based bourgeoisie in early imperial Italy.

Rostovtzeff was a Russian exile who became professor of ancient history and when i was a baby archaeology at Yale University. For his history, he had drawn on his knowledge of work for essayedge Pompeii which he had visited several times. Student 2014. In fact, he had written his thesis years years before on ‘In the light of the New Excavations’. It is believed that Maiuri drew on work, Rostovtzeff for his interpretation of the archaeological finds in P and Herc. Maiuri looked for physical evidence of drone attacks in pakistan economic and social change in both towns. To him the “often surprising juxtaposition of rich and poor, beautiful and commercial, luxurious and work squalid, suggested patrician classes in decline”‘ with a “brutal invasion of the commerical world.” (Wallace Hadrill). He formulated a thesis of papad plan a major social and economic transformation of the early empire, which developed into a crisis after her earthquake of AD 62, when he believed patricians left the city and retreated to their country estates, leaving a “motley crowd of enriched merchants, second hand dealers, bakers, fullers, decayed patricians, and thrusting industrialists dabbling in politics.”(Maiuri) In all his publications, from the time he first argued his case in L’Ultima fase edilizia di Pompeii in 1942 until his retirement, Maiuri’s language revealed his distaste at what he believed had happened. The following extracts were written 16 years apart. “But it is also in this period [ie.

Post-earthquake] that we witness the work, transformation of many upperclass houses into officinae and in the intrusion of shops. Drone Attacks In Pakistan. Cuponae and thermopolia into the interior and along the facades of patrician residences, the splitting up of a single, grand, upper-class house into several modest buildings the change and perversion of taste in type and style of the decoration of the rooms, sacrificing beautiful and noble old paintings for banal and work poor redecoration. When A Baby. In short, the invasion of the mercantile class of the for essayedge, structure of the indent when writing an essay, old Romano-Campanian patrician class of the city.” “But after upper class occupation lasting possibly as late as the work, Claudian era, the Profound transformation which the commercial life of the city had to undergo with the new arrangement of the Via del Foro, the grave crisis which the new currents of overseas commerce and plan earthquake damage produced in the class of the old patrician families of Herculaneum, and finally the need to withdraw from the noisy and Plebian commercial life of the for essayedge, Forum, were the multiple reasons which determined the essays on south, decay of this house from an work for essayedge, upper class residence to the practical use of when a baby essay a lodging with shops.” To Maiuri, Pompeii and Herculaneum – particularly in the last 17 years of their existence – were in decline. He maintained that the for essayedge, Pompeian forum was still in shambles when Vesuvius erupted, and drone in pakistan that this reflected the depressed economic conditions in Pomp after the earthquake of 62 AD.

His views remained the established orthodoxy until a number of scholars found it “necessary to tackle some of his presuppositions head on” (Wallace Hadrill). Although unaware of work it, tourists today are still under the influence of Maiuri with his picture of Pompeian society expressed in phd dissertation geographie most of the guide books and popular works. Some of the criticisms levelled at Maiuri include: Much of his excavation 1951-61 was rushed, with few of the excavated buildings restored or protected, and in the same period there was virtually no documentation, let alone publication. His publication in 1933 of the House of Menander and the treasure, although long and lavish, lacks detail and scientific precision; it was descriptive rather than analytical. In concentrating on for essayedge, descriptions of the paintings and student discussions of the more spectacular finds, he was following the current political line. His interpretation of social and economic transformation after the earthquake was based, according to Wallace-Hadrill, on work, anecdotal rather than statistical evidence and on when a baby essay, false assumptions about the elite, trade and use of property; about the mix of commercial and residential establishments; and about the link between luxury, decoration and status. His view of an invasion of industrialists “is sheer fantasy” (Andreau) Wallace Hadrill has shown that, although there may be some truth in Maiuri’s account of the crisis after the earthquake, “his model is simply too rigid.” It is easy in work for essayedge hindsight to phd dissertation geographie, criticise some of Maiuri’s methodology and interpretations, but it should not take away from his tremendous contribution to our understanding of Pompeii and work for essayedge Herculaneum.

Maiuri set the agenda for future work at both sites. When, on his retirement, he commented that “what is left to phd dissertation, do is a complex, laborious and ardorous, slow and costly work of preservation, protection and restoration” he was foreseeing the work, problems that the site would face in the next half century. Area of Research: From 1986 Lazer worked on a sample of over 300 individuals who were represented by attacks essay a collection of disarticulated bones stored in work for essayedge the Sarno Baths and in drone attacks in pakistan essay the female area of the Forum Her research included statistical studies based on skulls, hip or pelvis, leg and arm bones to establish the make-up of the population. Work For Essayedge. The techniques of writing forensic medicine and physical anthropology were used to determine sex, age-at-death, height, signs of disease (pathology) and populations affinities of the victims. The bones of work for essayedge very small children are fragile and often do not survive in attacks essay archaeological record – most record of these individuals comes from casts. She also had 2 smaller projects illustrate how interest in human remains from Pompeii and associated sites has moved away from a macabre fascination with groups of bodies caught in work for essayedge death to business plan, a scientifically based inquiry into the health of people in antiquity. Work on the Skeletons of the House of Menander: Some skeletal remains were staged into fabulous scenes for the benefit of celebrity guests. For Essayedge. Lazer examined the essay, skeletal remains on display in this house and subsequently published a study showing how the skeletons had been manipulated. Mairui transported the group of work skeletons in the House of Menander.

People visiting this site thought the business plan, bodies were displayed in their original location. The bodies were fancifully reinterpreted as ‘looters’ who had returned to Pompeii after the eruption, only to be killed by poisonous fumes that had been trapped in the ash. Lazer’s inspection of the skeletal remains established that despite Maiuri’s statement that the position of the bodies had not been altered, there was evidence that the work, skeletons had been manipulated. Phd Dissertation Geographie. That these changes occurred in Maiuri’s time can be implied from the fact that the area around the bones was consolidated with plaster that was sprinkled with ash when it was damp, thus maintaining the work, impression of bones in their excavation context. Some of the bones near the surface were loose. The remaining bones were embedded in the compacted ash and plaster. Phd Dissertation. Comparisons of for essayedge Lazer’s drawing with the original photograph establishes that the arrangement of skeletons had remained unchanged since the 1920’s. Examination of the skeletons revealed not only that they had been reconstructed, but that mistakes had been made. Essay. One was found to have two left thigh bones. One had one juvenile and work one adult upper arm bone. One had the on south african apartheid, skull of a child on the backbone of an adult.

One skull was found to for essayedge, be totally faked – consisting of pieces from various skulls and even a piece of backbone as a nose – the photograph suggests that this addition postdates Maiuri’s publication. Mauiri’s original excavation report informed of the relocation – with exception to the faked skull, there appears to be no deception. The mixed up bones of the skeletons appears to have been undertaken by untrained people with no knowledge of anatomy. The alterations that post-date Maiuri are more disturbing – the addition of the bronze lantern and tools was a conscious attempt to create a tableau that would appeal to visitors. X-Ray analysis of the cast of the ‘Lady of a baby Oplontis’ Lazer and a multi-disciplinary team, including radiologists and radiographers, an work for essayedge, anatomist and a forensic dentist, examined the body of the ‘Lady of Oplontis’ at when i was a Sydney clinic while it was in Australia for an exhibition on work for essayedge, Pompeii.

The cast had been made in when a baby essay transparent epoxy resin rather than the traditional plaster. The body was x-rayed and the lower half was CT scanned. The consnsus was that the skeleton was that of a mature adult female in the early years of the 4th decade. Conclusions from Research: The results indicate that almost equal numbers of males and females from all age groups did not manage to escape from the town before it was destroyed. The findings of this work have been published in a number of journal articles and were fully set out in a book published in 2005.

No significant sex or age bias among the victims. Area of for essayedge Research: The construction of a drainage ditch on what was once the a baby, beach of work for essayedge ancient Herculaneum in 1982 led to the discovery of attacks in pakistan skeletal remains. Subsequent excavations on the beachfront and inside the boat chambers fronting onto it, led to the discovery of 139 These were carefully disinterred and work closely studied by Bisel, a physical anthropologist from 1982-1988. Conclusions from Research: Calculated the mean heights for when i was the sample from Herculaneum at 155.2cm for females and 169.1cm for males – these results indicate regional continuity and suggest that the diet of ancient Campanians was adequate and that they enjoyed relatively good health during the period of bone growth.

Bisel presented a male skeleton on the beach at Herculaneum as a soldier due to the sword and tools with him as well as indications of his musculature – unreliable – problematic as different activities can lead to the same sort of muscle development. Documented cases of trauma in the Herculaneum sample – but did not separate healed fractures from other traumas, such as dislocations and work inflammatory responses. She reported that 32% of the male sample, compared to on south african, 11.4% of the female sample, displayed signs of trauma, with a population average of 22.7%. She did not consider that these figures indicated any bias towards injury in the sample. Bisel concluded that the teeth that she studied from the Herculaneum sample reflected a diet which included little sugar – she also considered that fluoride, in the seafood that probably made up a large part of the died, provided some protection against caries (tooth decay).

Bisel also noted instances of gum disease and work for essayedge teeth lost prior to death. Bisel collected samples for drone attacks in pakistan essay laboratory studies to for essayedge, establish died and to determine lead content in the bones. She analysed bones for the presence of calcium, magnesium, strontium and when a baby essay zinc. Work. She concluded that most people in the sample from Herculaneum had not relied on mamals or bird for their main protein source. Instead, they probably relied on vegetables, seafood or a combination of both. Phd Dissertation. Subsequent trace element analysis of the large number of work for essayedge skeletons that have been excavated since Bisel’s pioneering work essentially confirm her results. Bisel also examined Herculaneum bones for the presence of lead.

Bisel’s results were inconclusive; the limestone water source for Campania resulted in the inside of lead water pipes being coated with a layer of calcium carbonate that effectively acted as a barrier and protected consumers from lead poisoning. Bisel noted that her results reflect significant lead ingestion during the course of some individual’s lives, but do not confirm population wide lead poisoning as previously assumed. b. Changing interpretations: impact of new research and papad plan technologies. This project, which began in 1988, was initiated because the: Existing architectural plans of the forum were inaccurate and incomplete Architectural and decorative remains documented as late as 1983 were already deteriorating rapidly.

The project’s main objectives were to produce more accurate plans and elevations of the work, surviving remains, supplemented by large-format black-and-white photographs of archival quality, and computer models. These were to be used to stimulate discussions about 2014 Pompeian urbanism among scholars, and to use the forum data to study the for essayedge, Pompeian response to the earthquake of 62AD. The team, led by John Dobbins (professor of Roman art and archaeology at the University of i was a baby essay Virginia) included classical archaeologist, a specialist in Roman architecture, an urban architectural historian, and urban designer, engineers and computer and AutoCAD specialists. Structural engineering principles were brought to bear on archaeological questions. Much of the documentation work was performed using an electronic surveying device that interfaces with AutoCAD. 1996 – John Dobbins: Dobbins disproved the idea that the for essayedge, forum was a builder’s yard after the earthquake.

He found evidence of “urban renewal, a comprehensive and ambitious plan for the eastern side of the forum, a design that involved blocking streets, linking facades, upgrading building materials and student competitions emphasising the more prominent NE and SE entrances.” Maiuri’s early interpretation, the Crisis Theory, was smashed by work this evidence from Dobbins – instead of 2014 Maiuri’s purported ideals of economic decline and an already deteriorating town that met its end perhaps not. Began in 1988 because existing architectural plans of the forum were inaccurate and incomplete and architectural and decorative remains documents as late as 1983 were already deteriorating rapidly. To produce more accurate plans and elevations of the surviving remains, supplemented by large-format black and white photographs of archival quality, and work computer models. These were to be used to stimulate discussions about Pompeian urbanism among scholars and to use the forum data to study the Pompeian response to the earthquake of AD 62. Led by John Dobbins – professor of Roman art and archaeology at the University of Virginia. Included archaeologists, a specialist in Roman architecture, an urban architectural historian, an urban designer, engineers and computer and essays on south apartheid AutoCAD specialists. Much of the for essayedge, documentation work was performed using an papad business, electronic surveying device that interfaces with AutoCad. Changes in interpretations: 1996; Dobbins disproved the idea that the work for essayedge, former was a builder’s yard after the earthquake.

He found evidence of “urban renewal, a comprehensive and ambitious plan for the eastern side of the forum, a design that involved blocking streets, linking facades, upgrading building materials and emphasising the more prominent NE and SE entrances”. This is drone attacks in pakistan a change from Maiuri’s initial interpretaion of the Crisis Theory – that Pompeii was in economic decline and that the forum was in work disarray after the eruption of AD 62. ii. Attacks In Pakistan. Herculaneum conservation project. In 2000, the Packard Humanities Institute, a philanthropic organisation, made a long term commitment by for essayedge announcing its plans to give $10 million a year for ten years ($100 million) to excavate and preserve Herculaneum. The aim of the HCP (2001), which involves the British School at Rome and phd dissertation geographie the local heritage authority, is to halt the serious decay to Herculaneum so that it can be maintained on work for essayedge, a sustainable basis. Initially, the HCP was faced with an emergency situation: how to deal with a serious groundwater problem. This was solved by restoring the ancient network of understreet sewers, reopening the ancient drainage conduits of individual houses and student essay competitions 2014 draining all water down to the ancient shoreline and out to sea.

The HCP followed this by: Replacing roofing Safeguarding walls Restoring 20th century reinforced concrete lintels Consolidating wall paintings and bubbling mosaics Identifying suitable methodologies that can be used to conserve the wall paintings, plasters, mosaics and wooden features. The Getty Conservation Institute is working in collaboration with the HCP to address a number of conservation issues at the site, such as the flaking and powdering of paint on work for essayedge, wall paintings, and the treatment of mosaic pavements. Their scientists are testing non-invasive techniques. They are focussing on do you indent when, the House of the Bicentenary where they have installed a weather station to monitor environmental conditions as part of their diagnostic investigation into the deterioration of the work for essayedge, wall paintings.

Archaeological Discoveries as part of papad HCP. The work undertaken by the HCP has not only for essayedge preserved the material remains for future research, it “has generated a whole series of archaeological results that arguably would never have emerged without the african apartheid, focus given to conservation priorities”. For example, archaeologists discovered that: The natural tufa bedrock of the ancient shoreline had been quarried in pre-Roman times In the work, period before AD 79, the ancient shoreline had been affected by “bradyseism”, a phenomenon that occurs in seismic areas along the coast where the sea appears to retreat and encroach. The encroachment of the sea affected the essays on south african apartheid, Suburban baths by eroding the tufa building material and forcing the authorities to block many of the large windows to prevent the sea from work for essayedge entering The House of The Relief of Telaphus had a previously unknown extra floor that the owners had filled in and buried to protect the african apartheid, house’s seafront from the encroaching sea. Also discovered was the original timber roof of the same house, four storeys below its original position, with the work, remains of a decorative ceiling. “The HCP archaeologists led by Domenico Carmado and Ascania D’Andrea have now virtually reassembled the 250 or so pieces of the roof and reconstructed the elaborately decorated ceiling panels.”. Student Essay Competitions. (FIND) According to Project Director Andrew Wallace-Hadrill, “It will be the first ever full reconstruction of the timberwork of a Roman roof.” The ancient network of sewers and drains still contained organic and kitchen waste. In one sewer, the archaeologists recovered 750 sacks of work for essayedge excrement, the largest deposit. In 2000, the Packard Humanities Institute, a philanthropic organisation, made a long-term commitment by announcing its plan to give $10 million a year for 10 years to excavate and preserve Herculaneum. Aim is to halt the serious decay to Herculaneum to that it can be maintained on business plan, a sustainable bases.

Initially, the Herculaneum Conservation Project was faced with an emergency situation, having to deal with a serious groundwater problem. This was solved by restoring the ancient network under-street sewers, reopening the work for essayedge, ancient drainage conduits of phd dissertation geographie individual houses and draining all water down to work for essayedge, the ancient shoreline and out to i was essay, sea. The HCP followed this by: Replacing roofing Safeguarding walls Restoring 20th century reinforced concrete lintels Consolidating wall paintings and bubbling mosaics Identifying suitable methodologies that can be used to conserve the wall paintings, plasters, mosaics and wooden features. THe Getty Conservative Insitute is working in work for essayedge collaboration with the HCP to address a number of plan conservation issues at the site, such as the flaking and work powdering of essay paint on wall paintings, and the treatment of for essayedge mosaics. Scientists are testing non-invasive techniques. They are focusing on the House of the Bicentenary where they have installed a weather station to monitor environmental conditions as part of their diagnostic investigation into the deterioration of the wall paintings. Changes in interpretations:

The restoration of the ancient drainage system revealed the carbonised roof and student extra storey of the work, House of the Relief of Telephus. The ancient network of sewers and drains still contained organic kitchen waste. In one sewer, the archaeologists recovered 750 sacks of excrement, the largest deposit of geographie organic matter ever found in the Roman world. According to the Project Manager Jane Thompson, “instead of draining into the sea, this sewer was more like a giant septic tank that collected human waste, food scraps and discarded objects”. c. Issues of conservation and reconstruction: Italian and international contributions and responsibilities; impact of tourism.

In 1986 Henri de Saint-Blanquat, in Science et Avenir , declared that Pompeii was “an archaeological disaster of the work for essayedge, first order” By the mid-1990’s, conditions had deteriorated so much that only about 14% of the excavated site was open to the public. Business. Despite UNESCO registering Pompeii and Herculaneum as World Heritage Sites in 1997, and signs of recovery in the first part of the 21st Century, in November 2010 part of the Schola Armaturarum on Pompeii’s thoroughfare collapsed. Later that month, huge sections of a garden wall around the House of the Moralist collapsed on for essayedge, two separate occasions. These disasters led to international media hysteria and a political blame game regarding site management and indent when an essay Italy’s inability to care for its cultural heritage. Although the heavy rains in an area at the time were a factor in the collapses, Pietro Giovanni Guzzo claimed that they merely “drew attention to the state of neglect that has dragged on for years” Andrew Wallace-Hadrill agrees. He noted – in a December 2010 article, “The 21st century Fall of Pompeii” in the Art Newspaper- that collapses happen all the time over this site (15 major catastrophes since 2008 alone). “Collapses are only the most dramatic form of damage”.

In June 2011, the UNESCO Report on the disasters of 2010 said the “conditions that caused the collapses are widespread within the site” For the past 200 years, Pompeii and Herculaneum have been subjected to a whole range of destructive forces, both natural and anthropogenic, some unavoidable, others preventable. Negative Impacts on Pompeii and Herculaneum: Andrew Wallace Hadrill “to dig is to work for essayedge, destroy” Despite sudden catastrophes, such as the allied bombing in 1943 and do you indent paragraphs an essay the earthquake that rocked Campania on the 23rd of November 1980 – causing columns, sections of walls and some upper storeys to crash to the ground – most of the destruction in Pompeii and Herculaneum began the for essayedge, moment the sites were excavated, exposed and geographie neglected. Past Superintended of Pompeii Pietro Giovanni Guzzo said “Pompeii’s death is work not in one blow. It is slow but sure”.

From the moment sites were excavated a devastating change occurred in the exposed structures and objects. Some of the physical remains were originally interiors and never meant to be exposed to the effects of sun, wind and rain. The light began fading brilliant colours of the frescoes, and carbonised objects deteriorated quickly. The strong sunlight in Campania, and student essay the ozone, created in large quantities in the highly polluted conditions of the area in the 20th Century, speeded up in the fading and bleaching of paintings and the breakdown of organic materials. Airborne substances such as gritty particles, carbon particles, oil droplets and bacterial and mould spores have caused untold damage. In 1957, Karl Schefold carried out an inventory of all the existing wall decorations and work for essayedge discovered that almost a 1/3 faded completely with not ever having been recorded. 20 years later, JP Desourdes and Kay Francis of 2014 Sydney University found that of Schefold’s original inventory of for essayedge wall paintings, one out of every two that he had recognised as reconstructable, was lost forever.

Problem in the form of groundwater and rain. Phd Dissertation Geographie. In Herculaneum, the Suburban Baths complex was saturated by surface water that drained off the house above, causing the deterioration of the vaulted roof of the trepidarium and forcing the authorities to close the baths to the public. For Essayedge. However, while the HCP has attempted to address the question of groundwater, Pompeii, even in 2012, does not have an effective drainage system. The high calcium content of essay competitions 2014 wall paintings dissolves under the influence of moisture, and soluble salts come to surface injuring the paintings. Since the pollution of the C20, acid rain has caused the discolouration, abrasion and corrosion of surfaces.

The winter rains penetrate inadequate roofing and run down exposed walls, pooling on mosaic floors and causing damp to rise up the work, walls. The fertility of the Campania area is business plan “another enemy of the ruins”. Weeds and parasitic plants grow over many of the ruins, particularly those houses closed to the public, and in enclosed areas of bare soil such as peristyles and gardens. More than 30 varieties of weeds and brambles have been identified in Pompeii, including acanthus, wild carrot, fennel, fig, valerian and ivy. There are also infestations of for essayedge fungi and algae in areas of poor drainage and weeds clog gutters and sewers. Roots undermine the foundations of hosues, destabilise walls and buckle and loosed mosaic floors.

As soon as a small piece of mosaic lifts from the floor, the essays african apartheid, damp encourages the growth of for essayedge weeds, algae and lichens. Thousands of a baby square metres of mosaic floors have disintegrated under their attack. Brambles of ivy penetrate plaster inner walls and cling tenaciously to outer walls, destroying the ancient stonework. Attempts to remove them causes the walls to for essayedge, crack, break away and crumble, allowing damp to do you indent when an essay, enter. Insects and birds can also weaken structures. Large numbers of pigeons at Herculaneum have nested in the most secluded corners of the site and their acidic excreta has a corrosive effect on floors and wall decorations. They also cause irreparable damage by work for essayedge pecking at the carbonised wooden beams, doors and drone window frames. In 2004, the HCP proposed resolving the for essayedge, problem by using predatory falcons to discourage birds from nesting in the area. Falcons were regularly brought to the archaeological site in order to simulate their permanent presence. This technique is referred to when i was, as ‘territorial deterrence’.

In addition to the falcons, other measures are used to dissaude pigeons, such as removing their nests and excrement, installing nets and other forms of work deterrent that limit their access. Poor Restoration Work: Unintentionally, archaeologists of the past have contributed to the decay due to failed attempts at competitions restoration and conservation. The replacement of lintels over doors and windows by softwood instead of seasoned hardwood has resulted in rotting, mould and infestation of work for essayedge termites. The rusting of iron armatures in reinforced concrete used for repairs in the mid C20 split open the concrete and caused the collapse of both restored and ancient structures. Frescoes have been damaged by the application of modern mortars (the release of salts), paraffin wax and, even more recently, Paraloid B72 varnish, which prevented the papad, plaster from breathing. Where carbonised wood was not stabilised before it was covered with glass or fibreglass, it is now crumbling within the microclimate that has been created, while Perspex cases that were meant to protect frescoes and graffiti have created a humidity and dirt trap. Non-Expert building firms: In the recent past, the authorities were forced to use local firms who, according to French archaeologist Jean-Pierre Adam, may have been up-to-date with current building techniques, were incompetent in matters of restoration. “Some mistakes are notorious. In the for essayedge, House of Meleager, in the north-west of the city, the roof timbers for a room 5m by 11m, designed to support the weight of over 5 tons oftiles, were erected with no triangular sections to give it strength; in spite of african attempts to reinforce the roof with steel, the structure collapsed” Henri de Saint-Blanquat.

Also, a steel roof built over the loggia in the Hosue of the Mosaic Atrium in Herculaneum collapsed, covering the marble floor with rubble. Looting and poor site security: According to an Italian preservationist group, between 1975 and 2000, nearly 600 items were stolen from the sites. In 1975 a museum at Pompeii was closed after it was robbed, and in 1977 14 frescoes were cut from the work for essayedge, walls of the House of the Gladiators. In 1990, a storeroom was robbed at Herculaneum with more than 250 artefacts taken and in later robberies frescoes were cut from the walls of the essay, Hosue of the work for essayedge, Chaste Lovers – fortunately these were recovered some time later. It is likely that these cases were an ‘inside job’, possibly involving associates of the Neapolitan Mafia who took a keen interest in the sites, infiltrating the ranks of the site guards and drone attacks in pakistan essay demanding lucrative contracts for conservation and restoration work. When the superintendent of Pompeii Pietro Giovanni Guzzo, took a stand against the Mafia, several unfortunate incidents occurred. In 1997, the heads were cut from several Pompeian plaster casts, in July 2000 guards at work for essayedge Pompeii went on strike and indent paragraphs when writing an essay locked out 12 000 tourists and in September the for essayedge, same year a fire was set near the house of Iphigenia.

As recently as 2003, thieves broke into Pompeii at night and made off with a 33kg well-head from a fountain in the House of the Ceii. Although some things have improved, there is paragraphs when still a problem with security. Work For Essayedge. According to the UNESCO report in January 2012, staffing remains a problem. Only 23 guards are on site at any one time and they are far from vigilant, often seen gathering in groups of 3 and drone attacks in pakistan 4 lounging in work for essayedge the shade. Business Plan. Inefficient guards cannot be fired as their jobs are secure until they reach retirement age.

Also, security cameras are often out of action. A Double – Edged Sword. Close to three million tourists encroach on the sites every year, providing much needed revenues that is channelled directly into conservation and helping the public, through education, become more aware of the value of these heritage sites. However, tourism has a hugely negative impact on the sites, due to the restricted areas now accessible to the public. Tourists are confined to smaller areas as streets are barricaded off and houses, braced by scaffolding, are shut to the public; only a small percentage of what could be seen in the 1950’s and 1960’s can be experienced today. In 2006, only work sixteen monuments, houses and villa could be viewed compared with sixty in 1956. Most tourists are unaware of the impact they have on the fragile sites: millions of feet trample the papad business plan, mosaics and work for essayedge street pavements, wearing them down, and in some cases exposing lead pipes, which eventually crack and break up; hot humid breath and camera flashes cause further deterioration to already faded wall paintings; backpacks brush against walls and fingers rub walls, columns and frescoes causing perspiration to student essay 2014, react with the ancient surfaces; rubbish is dumped, attracting vermin, and work for essayedge cigarette butts are discarded carelessly; fragments of marble and pottery are collected as souvenirs; tourists climb over geographie barriers to get into forbidden areas to amuse themselves, and for essayedge then there is the inevitable damaging graffiti. Eye Witness Account of in pakistan vandalism in Pomp: “There is a vast crowd of tourists. Among the buildings stand a private house, not open to the public, where in the atrium, or inner courtyard, the stone columns are still standing. It is for essayedge impossible to keep an eye on everyone.

Some of the tourists find their way into the courtyard and, by way of a game, start to push against the columns. When I Was A Baby Essay. Eventually they succeed in knocking them down. Work For Essayedge. ” – (De Saint-Blanquat) Also, there is the when i was a baby, damage done by creating amenities needed to work, support the millions of tourists: signposts, bookshops, toilet blocks and do you indent eating places. Today visitors are still amazed by for essayedge the size of phd dissertation geographie Pompeii, and yet disappointed by how little there is to see. A first – time tourist describes his impression in the following way: “What we found is a very useful, and work I imagine extremely profitable cafeteria bang in the middle of the site. And besides that, acres of crumbling, anonymous ruins which we are barred from exploring by chains. There is also a fairly useful bookshop, but no museum to exhibit at least some of the sites most important relics…” “If history does not repeat itself and a future eruption of Mt Vesuvius does not engulf the city with a blanket of competitions 2014 volcanic ash, then the well-meaning tourist will surely destroy it bit ny bit. It seems likely that in time Pompeii will end up like the caves of Lascaux with its prehistoric paintings being recreated in an artificial setting away from the site itself, where gaggles of tourists can be herded through at for essayedge speed. Do You Indent When Writing An Essay. Although it (Pompeii) is too often packed with indifferent school children armed with clipboards and coach parties bussed from Rome with aching feet and dwindling interest, Pompeii is much more that just another attraction to tick off your list. For Essayedge. The paradox is that while we need visitors, and more especially in their money, to finance conservation and research projects at Pompeii, it is the visitors who are speeding up the decay.” “AT the very heart of any understanding of phd dissertation geographie Pompeii and work its archaeology must be the demands of the tourist, who as Maiuri explained was the do you indent when writing an essay, client of work archaeology.” (R Laurence)

Despite some improvements in the recent past, such as getting rid of feral dogs and phd dissertation geographie introducing a system where on ticket could be used to visit all the for essayedge, Vesuvian sites to pressure off Pompeii, poor site management can be blamed for the present state of the ancient city. This has taken the form of: Lack of geographie resources, good leadership and a skilled workforce Failure to maintain constant monitoring of the site Corruption Divided authority between the superintendent and a ‘city manager’ Outsourcing of contractors Cultural bureaucracy and red tape. “If I have to fix a brick wall, I first have to put out a tender for an architect to evaluate the damage. Then I have to put out for essayedge, a tender for a company to fix the wall. Then I have to student, see if I have enough money in my budget to pay for the repair, and work for essayedge then finally the work begins.” (Pietro Giovanni Guzzo, Superintendent of Pompeii 1995-2009) Three years ago, the plan, Italian govt. appointed special commissioners under emergency legislation to administer Pompeii, and within one year three superintendents followed in work quick succession. Phd Dissertation. After the collapses of 2010, there was a call for the resignation of the Culture Minister, and in 2011 military police launched criminal investigation after an independent study showed that the latest collapses were not caused by rain, but by negligence.

However, by the time the UNESCO Director- General visited the area in 2012, the work for essayedge, Italian authorities had put in place emergency conservation procedures. They had recruited twenty-one new and qualified technical staff to strengthen the maintenance and management of the property, as well as putting in place much-needed drainage, hydrological and restoration works in forty-four Pompeian houses. Despite these emergency measures, there are calls from some quarters to plan, completely privatise the work, site. When I Was A Baby. These have been dismissed as monstrous with fears that Pompeii would become a theme park. Rather, the international community has been urged to make even more efforts than in the past to protect the site.

Unfortunately, not everything can be saved for the future. Since conservation can only be carried out at a considerable cost and compromise, a resource management plan must be put into work, effect that will balance the when i was a baby essay, competing interests of tourism, the for essayedge, local economy, scholarly research and the obligation to hand down a unique cultural legacy to future generations. d. Attacks In Pakistan Essay. Ethical issues: study and work for essayedge display of human remains. i. Excavation, treatment and display of human remains. It is only fairly recently that ethics and archaeology have begun to collide. The issue of human remains arose predominantly through the concerns of indigenous peoples such as the Americans, Indians, Australian Aboriginal and other groups for student whom it is taboo to disturb the dead, and has evoked a passionate debate.

However it is not only the for essayedge, pressure exerted by these particular groups that has brought about student 2014 a re-evaluation of the treatment of human remains. Work. “Archaeologists’ standards are products of their time and changing values mean that every generation of archaeologists inevitably regards its predecessors as crude and insensitive.” In the early days, excavators and treasure hunters showed little regard for student human reamins. Work For Essayedge. At Pompeii, skeletal remains were often destroyed in the rush to discover precious finds, while others were taken away as souvenirs. The English writer Geroge Bulwer-Lytton is attacks supposed to have kept a Pompeian skull on his desk that gave him inspirations for the villain in his novel The Last Days of work for essayedge Pompeii (1843). Some of the early Pompeian water colourists record the deliberate positioning of skeletons in grisly tableux to impress visitors to the site, a practice obviously not acceptable today. Even Maiuri, in his attempt to attract tourists in Herculaneum, used a skeleton of phd dissertation geographie a young boy to completely stage a tableu in what he called ‘the room of the weaving girl’ attached to the House of Neptune and Amphitrite. The number of bones removed or smashed in the early days of excavation is not known. Some skeletons were piled carelessly in bathhouses during the later excavations where the bones became disarticulated and separated, making it almost impossible to study a whole skeleton.

Museum collections of human remains were for long period left in dark dusty basements, wrapped in newspaper. Although today human remains are generally treated with respect, there are some scholars who believe that all excavation of human remains should be stopped and that it is for essayedge unethical to display those that have already been excavated. At the other end of the continuum, are scientists such as osteo-archaeologists who find this unacceptable to their profession, and there is a generally held belief that the do you indent paragraphs when an essay, public should have access to the stories human remains tell. The study of human remains has always been an integral part of archaeology, and work for essayedge the following extracts from Ethics and papad business Archaeology reveal the work, importance of scientific studies of human bones. “Human skeletons are indispensable for archaeological research. Ancient diets, disease pathologies, genetic pattern and environmental adaptations are but a few research areas that osteo-archaeological remains can illuminate.” (R. Ford) “Archaologists and anthropologists have long considered archaeological human remains an important source of information about both biological and cultural aspects of prior human populations. Data derived from human populations of i was a baby essay all ethnic and for essayedge socio-economic groups are critical to plan, our understanding of many aspects of modern human biology as well as to the field of for essayedge forensics.” (A Cheek and B Keel) Today, however, the “authority of science over drone attacks in pakistan the dead is not absolute.” (economist.com) and modern archaeologists, conservators and curators do not operate in a vacuum. They must pay due regard to the sacred, spiritual and work metaphysical beliefs of those cultures with which they come into essay, contact.

Some of the questions raised in this ethical debate include: Should bones be seen solely as artefacts that provide valuable information? Should our view of the human remains be a function of the age of the for essayedge, remains? Should archaeologists have the freedom to pursue knowledge and drone in pakistan essay scientific enquiry without political pressures and legal constraints? Who should have custodianship over the human remains? What is the most appropriate way to store and work display human remains?

It is when i was generally agreed that where human bones are of great antiquity (pre-1000), and where ethnic connections ‘are lost in the mists of time’, custody favours the scientist rather than any cultural group. In this case the bones must be treated with the same professional approach as with other artefacts. However the interests of the scientists and their rights of enquiry do not necessarily override the work for essayedge, wishes of living relatives, direct descendants of ‘cultural’ descendants. The question of custodianship of human remains seems to lie along a continuum, with direct descendants and when i was a baby cultural descendants at one end and museums as custodians of the general public at the other. Often past treatments of work for essayedge bones (e.g. Essay. substances for adhering bones) have been carried out with no understanding of future ramifications. Work For Essayedge. Even today, with the ability to conduct a wide range of sophisticated tests, people are questioning whether it is ‘ethical to jeopardise the physical characteristics of bone for business potential future analysis on elements that have not necessarily survived in the sample” (FIND) In some museums, the storage facilities for human remains have long been substandard. Storage should conform to sound conservation practices that protect the remains against physical deterioration: wrapped in acid-free paper, placed in protective containers, as well as being guarded against theft or malicious use. This is essential, since bones may be needed again so that future scientists can check present interpretations, inaccuracies and bias when new techniques become available. Display of Human Remains in Museums.

This has always been a controversial matter and every effort must be made to avoid giving offence. For example: “No ethnic identification should be affixed if it is demeaning, or if no useful purpose is served.” (r. For Essayedge. Ford) The sensitivities of drone in pakistan essay certain religious groups such as Jews and Muslims, who object to being in work close proximity to human remains, should be taken into account, as should the interests of children. Clear notices should ensure that no-one enters a room displaying human remains without adequate warning. The International Council of drone attacks essay Museums (ICOM) in addressing the work for essayedge, display of human remains, states: “Human remains should be displayed in a manner consistent with professional standards and, where known, taking into essay, account the interests and beliefs of members for for essayedge the community, ethnic or religious groups from whom the objects originated. They must be presented with great tact and respect fot ehe feelings of human dignity held by all people.” (ICOM) Some of the intact skeletons from the boatshed of Herculaneum are displayed in the National Archaeological Museum in Naples and coming face to when i was a baby, face with these twisted agonised skeletons can create a greater response from the viewer that all the plaster casts of Pompeii together.

While the work, aim of phd dissertation a museum is to provide a fascinating exhibition, skeletal remains should only be displayed when furthering the work, public’s understanding of the plan, activities of archaeologists. Opinion of R. Ford: “Wherever possible, the use of casts should replace the actual object.” Most people would agree that one of the most fascinating aspects of a visit to Pompeii is the chance to see plaster casts of the victims displayed in a number of locations, some in situ. Thirteen figures can be seen in the Garden of Fugitives, lying where they fell; two in the Stabian Baths, two in the Villa of Mysteries and two in the Marcellum. Others are displayed in houses that are only work occasionally opened to the public. As well, there are six in the Forum Olitorium, which is at present being used as a storage facility. They were orignally displayed in papad the Pompeian Museum, which was closed in 1975 after thieves looted it of jewellery and coins. These are certainly not displayed to the best advantage and work for essayedge hopefully will find a more appropriate ‘home’ in attacks the future. Although these casts reveal more than anything else the full horror of those fateful 18 hours in August AD 79, they are intended to help the work for essayedge, general public understand Fiorelli’s unique contribution to archaeology, and an essay the tragic deaths of the work, inhabitants of the city. Despite the evidence of the pain and suffering experienced – which may cause some to reflect – and the fact that the casts contain the remains of bones, they do not to offend, and provide a fascinating display.

Others are safely and sensitively displayed behind glass in competitions 2014 the Naples Museum. It is possible that in for essayedge the future, during construction, road building or agricultural activities, more remains may be found in the countryside around Pomp where many people fled and died in 79. Drone. Although there would be no particular religious or cultural reason for not excavating, archaeologists would have to come up with a convincing rationale for it and fulfil the ethical propositions involved in cultural resource management. The question of the excavation, treatment and display of human remains is for essayedge ‘an evolving topic’. ii. Ownership and international traffic in business antiquities. There has always been treasure seeking, souvenir hunting and for essayedge looting of essays on south african apartheid archaeological sites – none more so that at Pompeii and Herculaneum – as well as a lucrative antiquities market. Many of the ancient objects in museums around the world and in private collections have been acquired in this way.

Artefacts sold as objects d’art fetch high prices, which is a further incentive to for essayedge, looters. However, the booming international traffic in antiquities today is different in business two ways from that of decades ago. Today it is ‘big business and dangerous. For Essayedge. Felons, narcotic dealers and other criminal elements participate in the antiquities black market” (FIND). And the advent of the internet, with its online auction houses, has made it easier to dispose of artefacts and harder to police, especially since many objects have been in private collections for generation. The growing demands from the market and the manufacture of forgeries are destroying archaeological heritage and distorting archaeological evidence. Over the years there have been many conferences on cultural property, but there are often conflicts of interest between archaeologists, museums, auction houses and do you indent writing an essay art dealers. For Essayedge. In 1999, the Italian govt. requested that the USA State Department’s Cultural Property Advisory Committee block the import of thousands of years’ worth of ancient artefacts. Both the Italian govt. and archaeologists believed it would help “curb looting and theft of a treasured Italian heritage”, but art dealers and museum curators insisted that “such a restriction would limit US public access to Italy’s great cultural past.” Most international laws claim the ultimate ownership by the state of all antiquities found within its borders and yet, as recently as November 2004, members of the Italian govt. shocked archaeologists by proposing to “legalise the private ownership of archaeological treasures in competitions Italy.” Under this proposal, “treasure hunters who declare their finds can keep and own them if they pay the work for essayedge, state 5 per cent of the object’s estimated value.” (FIND).

Scholars call the plan “an incitement to in pakistan, theft” and “a looters charge”. The professor of archaeology at work for essayedge Cambridge said: “This legislation would be a slap in i was a baby the face for those in administration who work for the conservation of its heritage.” Archaeological objects are a non-renewable resource and their protection should be the responsibility of everyone. However, once they have left the country of origin, proving that they have been stolen is one of the most difficult of legal issues, and if a country is to re-acquire them it has to pay, often at astronomical cost. Apodyterium- Changing room. Caldarium Hot room. Frigidarium- Cold room with a cold plunge bath. Palaestra- Exercise area. Pyroclastic flow/surge- Fast-moving and for essayedge highly destructive flow of gas and rock resulting from the collapse of the eruption column of a volcanic eruption. Aediles- The two officials responsible for law and order in the town, as well as the supervision of baths, water supply and places of student competitions 2014 entertainment.

Basilica- Large hall attached to the forum where law courts were held and which was also a meeting place for businessmen. Duoviri- The two officials responsible for judging law cases. Forum- Large open space that was the work for essayedge, commercial, administrative and religious centre of Roman towns. Macellum- Food market. Graffito, graffiti- Writing or pictures drawn, painted or scratched onto surfaces such as walls, e. Atrium- Central hall around which other rooms of the house were arranged. (No real equivalent in modern northern European houses) Compluvium- Hole in roof of atrium to a baby, let in light and collect rainwater. Hortus- Walled garden. Impluvium- Pool for rainwater. Lararium- Shrine of the household gods.

Peristylium- Garden surrounded by a colonnade. Tablinum- Study/main reception room used by the head of the family. Triclinium- Dining room named after the standard arrangement of three couches on work for essayedge, which Roman diners reclined. Lares- Guardian spirits of a town or family. Podium- High platform on which Roman temples stood. Temples were normally reached by climbing a flight of when a baby steps at the front of the podium. Precinct- The area around a temple where public worship took place. Arena- Area in which performance took place in a Roman amphitheatre. ‘arena’ is the Latin word for ‘sand’ Bestiarius, bestiarii- People who both looked after animals before the show and work then hunted them in the arena. Cavea- The curved and banked seating area of Roman theatres and drone attacks in pakistan amphitheatres.

Murmillo, murmillones- Gladiator equipped with sword, shield and work for essayedge helmet decorated like a fish. Often fought the retiarius. Orchestra- The semi-circular space between the stage and seating in a Roman theatre. Retiarius, retiarii- A lightly equipped gladiator who fought with a net and threepronged trident. Often fought the murmillo. Scaenae- The high stage building of a Roman theatre. Book your first lesson.

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#8220;1984#8221; by George Orwell Analysis Essay. When two claims contradict one another, it is futile and useless in attempting to analogize between the two. George Orwell, the author of the work novel 1984, defines doublethink as #8220;the power of holding two contradictory beliefs in one#8217;s mind simultaneously, and do you indent writing an essay accepting both of them.#8221; It is the idea of genuinely accepting two conflicting ideas, which eliminates an individual#8217;s capacity of being able to think or act freely. Dinh, the author of both the Patriot Act and the essay #8220;How the USA Patriot Act Defends Democracy#8221;, uses a modern day form of double think in an attempt to for essayedge, justify the Patriot Act, an act which unconstitutionally violates the individual#8217;s right of privacy through the clandestine use of surveillance. Gelsey, the author of the essay #8220;The FBI is Reading over Your Shoulder#8221; illustrates the potential effect of the Library Records Provision of the on south african Patriot Act, otherwise known as Section 215. Section 215 allows the government to search and obtain the records of any individual without the individual#8217;s consent or knowledge. Gelsey claims that #8220;intimidating readers in such a manner is, in effect, controlling what we read and how we think#8221;, thus it #8220;circumvents the First Amendment by threatening readers rather than prohibiting what they read.#8221; Gelsey compares this statement to Winston Smith, the work protagonist of the novel 1984, whose capacity of free thought and self expression is impaired and damaged due to constant monitoring and surveillance. The two conflicting claims of both Dinh and Gelsey bring in to competitions 2014, point the issue of protecting individual rights versus the right of the work for essayedge state to access an individual#8217;s private information. Dinh claims that a balance of #8220;ideals#8221; and #8220;techniques#8221; is necessary and required for the rights of the individual to be protected.

However, these #8220;techniques#8221; of surveillance and monitoring violate those #8220;ideals#8221;, which are the constitutional rights that protect an individual from state power. Dinh#8217;s statement of business, combining #8220;ideals#8221; and #8220;techniques#8221; can be viewed as a modern day form of doublethink because Dinh attempts to justify the Patriot Act through the explanation of how the rights of an individual can only be protected when those rights are unconstitutionally violated through the exposure of privacy. Doublethink, which is the simultaneous belief in two contradictory ideas while being unaware of its compatibility, is a form of manipulation of the mind. In the work for essayedge novel 1984, the protagonist Winston Smith is constantly under monitor and when i was surveillance, which has altered and mangled his mind. Thus he becomes incapable of being able to know which thoughts are truly his, and is no longer able to express himself of work for essayedge, his own free will.

The perpetual government surveillance in i was, the novel forces Winston to secretly purchase a diary in which to write his own thoughts. However, the pressure of being under incessant monitoring has made Winston incapable of expressing his own thoughts, as he is only able to write the same phrase over and over. This creates a sense of paranoia that is also seen in Gelsey#8217;s essay as she writes about the interminate surveillance and monitoring of innocent and unsuspecting individuals. Gelsey states that #8220;the feeling of being monitored inhibits freedom of thought#8221; as seen in Winston, and also in modern society today. However, Dinh, the writer of the for essayedge Patriot Act, claims such fear and paranoia are absurd, and states that it is #8220;historically and legally unfounded#8221; to geographie, compare government surveillance to that of the surveillance used in 1984.

In the novel, the Party, who are elites, uses doublethink as a massive campaign in order to psychologically manipulate the individuals of the society they live in. By using double think, the Party is able to deteriorate the individual#8217;s capability of being able to work for essayedge, think independently. They manipulate the attacks in pakistan essay individual into believing whatever they are told to believe. The official slogan of the Party, which is #8220;war is peace, freedom is slavery, ignorance is strength#8221; is the first example and introduction to a form of doublethink. The words of the slogan all contradict one another.

Yet the party is successfully able to manipulate society, which allows them to force individuals into believing whatever is needed to believe, regardless of how illogical or contradictory the statement may be. By being manipulated and coerced into work, accepting the ambivalent and conflicting nature of doublethink, the phd dissertation independence and work self determination of individuals begin to dwindle and diminish. In 1984, doublethink is seen once more as Winston Smith deletes disturbing yet true facts from the public records. He is then forced by the Party to believe the fabricated version of the truth. A modern day form of doublethink is when a baby used by work, Dinh, the author of the Patriot Act. Geographie? Dinh expresses a modern day form of double think as he arfues that the Constitution, which protects individuals from government power, must be violated by work, the government in order for the individual#8217;s right to be protected. This unconstitutional claim contradicts itself, thus Dinh has incorporated a modern day form of double think in his essay. As the plot of 1984 progresses, it is clarified that newspeak must be present in papad plan, order for doublethink to be effective.

Newspeak is the official language of the society in 1984. The Party created Newspeak with the purpose of limiting a person#8217;s thought and speech, thus eliminating any rebellious thought. This allows the Party to constantly monitor individuals and to further ensure that everyday thought and speech can be limited and manipulated. For Essayedge? Newspeak is the method the Party members adopt in phd dissertation geographie, order to control and manipulate thinking through the alteration of language, while double think is the technique the Party members use to directly control individual thoughts. Doublethink also allows the Party, or in Dinh#8217;s case, to hide its own wrongs from itself and society through the continual use of surveillance and propaganda. This proves to affect not only the individual#8217;s thought and actions shown in 1984, but also that of the individual members of the Party. Doublethink proves to be an effective method of persuasion and manipulation not only in the novel 1984, but in modern society as well, as seen in the issue brought upon by the Patriot Act. When the individual#8217;s right to privacy is tested by the government, it is justifiable for the principle and morality of the government to for essayedge, be tested by indent an essay, the individual. The Patriot Act, written by Dinh, claims to balance the #8220;ideals#8221; and #8220;techniques#8221; that are required for the protection of the individual#8217;s rights granted by the Constitution. Section 215 of the Patriot Act grants the government the work ability to i was, obtain the records of any individual, such as library book records, providing that the government assures that it is trying to #8220;protect against terrorism.#8221; It is stated in the First Amendment that an individual has the right to read whatever book or material they desire to read. However, Section 215 of the Patriot Act violates the work for essayedge right of being able to freely choose what an individual wants to read.

If the rights of one person are violated, then the rights of every individual of this country are violated. Therefore it is constitutional and democratic for the right of essay 2014, every individual to be protected, not just a select few. In society today, the free communication between people is the basis for free thinking. the freedom of thought is curtailed if there is no free communication, which results in work for essayedge, restricted thinking. Gelsey writes that the #8220;FBI is policing our minds by purporting to read them.#8221; Although Dinh claims that the Patriot Act protects the rights of individuals, Gelsey believes that this section violates the most essential right granted by the Constitution, which is that #8220;giving up privacy rights can#8217;t guarantee physical safety, but it will almost certainly inhibit intellectual freedom.#8221; She states that she does not want to give up liberty for security because it does not guarantee security. However, the pressure of being watched and monitored will take away the individual#8217;s ability to properly think, as shown by Winston in the 1984. This is where Dinh disagrees. He states that such #8220;concerns expressed about official surveillance of US citizens are reasonable and should be addressed.#8221; He then attempts to explain how the Patriot Act does not violate individual rights by stating that the society should #8220;trust us. The government wouldn#8217;t abuse these new powers against individuals.#8221; However, it is difficult to trust Dinh#8217;s claim based on his lack of credibility. From the beginning of his essay #8220;How the USA Patriot Act Defends Democracy#8221;, contradictory statements are already evident. Although he wrote the Patriot Act, Dinh thinks that the Patriot Act is #8220;one of the most important legislative measures in American history.#8221; If Dinh #8220;thinks#8221; that the Patriot Act is only #8220;one of the most legislative measures#8221;, it shows that Dinh himself is not sure whether or not it is important at paragraphs an essay all.

He also states that the terrorists are nihilistic, which is untrue. Terrorists are religious fanatics and true believers in religious or personal causes. All these inaccurate and false statements demonstrates Dinh#8217;s lack of credential. Therefore the readers have valid reason of not accepting Dinh#8217;s claims. As a result, Dinh attempts to use a modern day form of work, doublethink in an attempt to justify his claims in order to persuade the reader. Chaos and discord is inevitable without a certain amount of balance. In the concluding paragraph of Dinh#8217;s essay, Dinh attempts to clarify the relationship of in pakistan essay, ideals and techniques. Work For Essayedge? Dinh states that the #8220;foundation of liberty is under attack#8230;#8221; Although he persuasively attempts to when, articulate this claim, the #8220;foundation of liberty#8221; is in work for essayedge, fact not in drone, jeopardy. The foundation of liberty is the Constitution, which states the rights of citizens in this democratic nation. These rights include the Bill of Rights, which are the amendments of the Constitution. Dinh alerts the readers that terrorists are attempting to attack the work for essayedge foundation of liberty, the Constitution.

However, terrorists do not prioritize in the undertaking of missions to eliminate the rights of U.S. citizens. Terrorists attempt to define their reason of terrorism by attacking capitalism. Capitalism and democracy are not similar systems. Capitalism describes the economical system, while democracy is the political system. Terrorists attack capitalism, not the Constitution, through the destruction of symbolic buildings in order to halt the economical growth of the United States. Further in the paragraph, Dinh exclaims that it is #8220;critical that we both reaffirm the ideals of our constitutional democracy.#8221; Dinh defines #8220;ideals#8221; as the do you paragraphs writing an essay rights given to each individual that protects from government power.

The #8220;constitutional democracy#8221; he also writes about is not the fantasy of economic opportunity, but it is Constitution and work the Bill of Rights. Dinh also states that it is important to do you indent an essay, #8220;discern the techniques necessary to secure those ideals against the threat of terrorism.#8221; Dinh believes that the Patriot Act is the work necessary #8220;technique#8221; that can extend the powers of government by going beyond what the plan law permits. These #8220;techniques#8221; violates the Constitution through the surveillance of individuals by the order of the state. By declaring that these #8220;techniques#8221; are necessary in for essayedge, order to secure the #8220;ideals#8221; against the threat of when a baby essay, terrorism, Dinh is acknowledging the fact that the Constitution must be violated in order for for essayedge it to be protected from terrorism. However, it is was already mentioned that the on south apartheid terrorists do not pursue the Constitution, but rather the economic growth of the U.S. Dinh indicates that the government must violate the rights which protect individuals from state power in order to protect those rights. This is an evident use of modern double think, which is the #8220;the power of work for essayedge, holding two contradictory beliefs in one#8217;s mind simultaneously, and accepting both of them#8221; Dinh continues by quoting a renowned law professor who knows nothing about the terrorists that Dinh is phd dissertation geographie warning the work for essayedge readers about.

The quote #8220;ideals without techniques are a mess. But technique without ideals is a menace#8221; does not relate to Dinh#8217;s Patriot Act. Dinh simply uses Llewellyn#8217;s quote without even explaining the intended meaning of it. Dinh attempts to relate the Patriot act with the #8220;ideals#8221; and #8220;techniques#8221;, but it is evident that the two cannot be compared in any aspect. There is only the reiteration and i was a baby essay repetition of the words #8220;ideals#8221; and #8220;techniques#8221;, which does not clearly explain the meaning or purpose of work, Dinh#8217;s use of competitions 2014, those words. Dinh merely states that the combining of ideals and techniques will shield democracy, and then uses double think in order to for essayedge, justify how the essay 2014 Patriot Act violates the Constitution and individual rights. It is evident that Dinh#8217;s statement can be viewed as a modern day form of double think because it attempts to combine the contradictory claims that an individual#8217;s rights can only be protected through the violation of those rights. Gelsey claims that the governmental #8220;techniques#8221;, which involve surveillance and obtaining unwarranted records, directly violate the #8220;ideals#8221; and rights that Dinh claims to work for essayedge, protect.

The capacity of being able to think and act freely are prohibited, if not restricted, hen people are aware that they are under constant surveillance, Innocent individuals being monitored would not be able to essay 2014, act freely because they would not know what actions are capable of work for essayedge, being considered suspicious. Gelsey connects her statement to 1984 and its protagonist Winston Smith, whose capability to 2014, act and think freely was tampered with due to the strain of being under constant surveillance. Yet Dinh argues against such claims by stating that #8220;During these times, when the foundation of liberty is under attack, we must reaffirm the ideals of our constitutional democracy and work also discern the techniques necessary to secure those ideals against the threat of terrorism.#8221; Beneath all of the fanciful dictation and reiteration of words, the readers discover that such #8220;techniques#8221; only violate those #8220;ideals.#8221; The violation of privacy rights can only be regarded as a direct violation to the Constitution, not as a #8220;shield#8221; to those #8220;ideals.#8221; As Dinh discards the comparison of the Patriot Act with Orwell#8217;s illustration of the state#8217;s potential to invade individual rights, the readers discard Dinh#8217;s credentials as well, due to the inaccurate and inconclusive use of the #8220;techniques#8221; and #8220;ideals#8221; he regards as necessary in the fight against #8220;terrorism.#8221; Gelsey, Zara. #8220;The FBI is Looking Over Your Shoulder.#8221; The Brief Bedford Reader. Ed. X. J. K. On South African Apartheid? Kennedy, Dorothy M. Work? Kennedy, and Jane E. Aaron. 9th. Ed. Boston: Bedford, 2006. Student? 473- 478. Dinh, Viet. Work? #8220;How the phd dissertation geographie U.S. For Essayedge? Patriot Act Defends Democracy.#8221; The Brief Bedford Reader.

Ed. X. J. K. Essays On South African Apartheid? Kennedy, Dorothy M. Kennedy, and Jane E. Aaron. 9th. Ed. Boston: Bedford, 2006. 479- 485. Orwell, George. _1984_. Afterword by Erich Fromm. Work For Essayedge? New York: Signet, 1992. University/College: University of Chicago.

Type of geographie, paper: Thesis/Dissertation Chapter. Date: 25 July 2016. Work? Let us write you a custom essay sample on #8220;1984#8221; by George Orwell Analysis. for only $16.38 $13.9/page. Haven't found the Essay You Want? Get your custom essay sample.

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erotic essay Sex and Sexuality in Islam. by Muslim Women's League. Even though it comprises only part of our identities, the sexuality of for essayedge, women represents so much more; such that women's sexuality has been viewed as something to be controlled, hidden, or mastered, most often by men. Through the ages, sexuality has an impact on one's identity, self-esteem, relationships with others, societal mores, legal codes and so on. If sexual behavior simply existed to allow for procreation, so much controversy and essays on south african apartheid fascination would have no reason to exist. Unfortunately, in many societies and for many years women have been principally defined by their roles as sexual beings whose chief purpose is to satisfy men's sexual needs; this perception contributed to maintaining women in positions of inferiority and often subservience to men.

Even today, women are singled out as sex objects, either as victims of rape or willing participants in work for essayedge, industries such as advertising or pornography, that exploit women's sexuality. The purpose of this chapter is to explore important issues of sexuality from an Islamic point of view in an effort to business plan expose demeaning cultural habits which have no basis in Islam, and to offer alternative understandings of these issues based on the primary sources of Qur'an and Hadith. The view of sexuality as taboo and shameful is by no means unique to any particular religious or ethnic group. Work For Essayedge! The Victorian era in England and the US(late 19th century) was characterized by indent when an essay, such a strong inhibition of sexuality that was subsequently blamed for work for essayedge psychological problems seen in women by psychiatrists such as Sigmund Freud. Breaking free from the oppressiveness of that era was an essays apartheid, important goal for women through most of the 20th century since the prevailing attitudes were not confined to sexual issues as women were denied many other essential human rights. Laila Ahmed addresses some of the misogynistic conditions and beliefs that preceded Islam in the Mediterranean area, heavily influenced by Jewish and Christian thinking at work that time(6th and student 7th centuries). She points out the church's attitude on abortion and contraception . formed part of a broader negative ethos concerning the body and sexuality -- a sense of these as sinful and for essayedge shameful and of sexuality as legitimate only for procreation. women were evidently perceived as innately more implicated in physicality and sexuality than men. (Women and Gender in Islam, p.35) Unfortunately, a similar view of essay competitions 2014, women has been adopted by some Muslims and work for essayedge may actually be rooted in the cultural values which existed when Islam was introduced. Human sexual development goes through several well-defined stages. Throughout growth, opportunities exist to teach children about their bodies, to inculcate values and attitudes, and most importantly to foster self-esteem. The success or failure (as determined by a woman's overall understanding and value of herself as well as her ability to maintain a satisfying relationship) can be determined by prevailing attitudes of the family and surrounding culture. Sexual development occurs throughout the life-cycle, beginning in infancy and childhood.

The healthy progression from one stage of development to the next is dependent upon 2014 fulfillment of basic requirements at each stage. For example, an infant must develop trust that the caregiver will consistently respond to her cries before she can safely venture into the world and test the budding independence of toddlerhood. The ultimate achievement is the development of an intact, secure adult with a high sense of self-esteem and work for essayedge self-worth. If a girl is when a baby essay constantly being told that she is naughty, shameful, stupid or ugly, she will come to believe it and obviously have low self-esteem which will interfere with relationships, school, work and so on. This illustration in general terms introduces the argument that cultural habits which teach girls excessive shame breed guilt and reinforce a negative self-image contributing to low self-esteem and work for essayedge even dysfunctional sexual lives. This stage of development has been referred to as the latent stage in Freudian terms. It was felt that between early childhood and puberty children had no interest in their or others sexuality; they are essentially dormant in this regard until hormonal changes signal the onset of puberty. However, this argument has been challenged by other experts in the field.

Regardless of on south, psychological theories, certain facts must be considered about children at this age. They are developing mentally and as such are often extremely curious about work for essayedge themselves, others, animals and drone so on. This is a good time to reinforce concepts of for essayedge, cleanliness, privacy and self-respect and to begin to teach them about sexuality and reproduction in an age appropriate manner. Some girls will start menstruating as early as age nine and should be prepared ahead of time by frank and open discussions with their parents. For many girls, the most significant thing to happen during this time is the onset of menstruation. If a girl has not been prepared for this event, the sight of the first few drops of blood can be terribly frightening. Student Essay! The signs that a girl is entering this stage of work, development include breast development, growth of hair under the arms and in the pubic area, increase in height and drone finally onset of menses. At this time, cultural and familial attitudes about menstruation are critical in impacting a girl's acceptance or rejection of this milestone in work for essayedge, her life. Because of the rapid rate of change and accompanying sense of an essay, awkwardness, adolescents are often insecure and preoccupied with appearances, with a strong desire to be accepted by their peers. This stage is work for essayedge characterized by a heightened interest in and awareness of members of the opposite sex.

In the United States and in many other countries, young people begin to develop relationships during the teenage years. Over half of the students graduating from high school have been sexually active. African Apartheid! Many communities are working hard to teach abstinence before marriage but they are working against for essayedge difficult odds especially when dating is viewed as normal, age-appropriate behavior. Yet, a primary task at this stage is to achieve a healthy, intimate relationship, which, for Muslims, can only phd dissertation geographie, exist in the context of marriage. Once women become sexually active, they then must deal with issues related to pregnancy, such as attitudes toward child-bearing, timing and spacing of children, and contraception. Ideally, decisions are made within a mutually supportive monogamous relationship.

Also, during this time, sexual satisfaction as well as sexual dysfunction or incompatibility become important issues as part of an overall relationship and can contribute to its well being or be a source of for essayedge, tension and stress. Historically, older women and men were considered asexual as aging and sexuality seemed incompatible. Especially today, as women and men live well into their eighties, sexuality is still an important part of business plan, many people's lives. While some may experience a decreased sex drive, others do not notice any change at all. Early in life, children become aware of their sexuality even to the point that infants can experience sexual pleasure (see Your Baby and Child, P. Leach, p. 212). Infants develop awareness of the for essayedge function and form of all body parts as they grow. To a child, the penis or vagina is just another part of the body, like arms and legs. The focus on the genitals is particularly evident during the toilet training years. If a child is taught that her genitals are dirty and shameful , but she wants to attacks in pakistan essay explore them just the same, naturally she will feel ashamed and naughty if she does so. Therefore, early on for essayedge she sees part of herself as negative. Most child development experts encourage parents to remain neutral about a child's interest in her genitals to avoid preoccupation with that body part and to enhance the on south african apartheid development of a positive sexual identity.

As the child grows, it becomes important to teach her about privacy and appropriate behavior when around others. Oftentimes, parents fear that by not discouraging their children from touching themselves, they are encouraging them to explore sexuality at an early age. But teaching children to respect and understand their bodies will more positively impact their self image compared to emphasizing the sense of shame ('ayb) that many children are taught. Such a sense of shame can be taken to extremes; for example, a mother refuses to apply necessary medication to her three year old daughter's vagina because to touch her there is 'ayb. Other girls are afraid to cleanse their genitals properly because to touch themselves is 'ayb. The concept of shame or disgust regarding one's body has no basis in Islam. During adolescence, sexuality becomes of interest to young people as their bodies experience hormonal upheavals which result in physical and emotional changes.

Again, a girl's experience through childhood will influence her passage through this difficult time. Work! If she is taught that the onset of african, menstruation is a curse, then her experience and coping mechanisms will be affected negatively. A positive attitude will enable a young woman to work for essayedge view it as a milestone, not a hindrance. Unfortunately, much folklore and negative cultural beliefs abound regarding a woman's menses. Indeed, for some women menstruation is a physically difficult, unwelcome disruption every month. But it is a simple biological process that can be managed like any other physical condition, and needn't impair a woman's ability to function. Several hadith exist regarding menstruation. The only Qur'anic reference is found in Surah 2, verse 222 where Muslims are told to avoid sexual intercourse during a woman's menses: And they will ask thee about (woman's) monthly courses.

Say, 'It is a vulnerable condition. Keep, therefore, aloof from women during their monthly courses, and do not draw near unto them until they are cleansed; and when they are cleansed, go in unto them as God has bidden you to do.' In a hadith found in Muslim (No. A Baby Essay! 592, also reported in Sunan Abu Dawud, No, 258), a discussion occurs whereby the Prophet emphasizes that the Islamic view of menstruation differs significantly from the Jewish attitude during his time, which strongly restricted women from several arenas while they were menstruating. In this hadith he says, Associate with them in for essayedge, the houses and do everything except sexual intercourse. Aisha and the other wives of the Prophet were instrumental in pointing out his attitude of tolerance; for example, Maimuna recalled an occasion when she was sitting near him while he was praying. Attacks Essay! She happened to be menstruating and work during his prayers he knelt on her garment but did not displace it, meaning that being in the presence of a menstruating woman had no impact on his prayers ( Mishkat ul Masabih, No. 550; for other hadith along similar lines see Sunan Abu Dawud, Nos. 212-213, 267-273; Muslim, Nos.

269, 577-588 and Bukhari, Vol. Phd Dissertation Geographie! 1, Nos. 293-300) Also, the Prophet commanded menstruating women and those observing purdah to participate in Eid festivities. They sat behind those who prayed but joined in takbir ( Muslim, Nos. 1932-34; Bukhari, Vol.1, No. 321). Exemptions from for essayedge Rituals.

Today, as in the time of the attacks Prophet, women do not pray or fast while on their menses. The Qur'an does not address this practice at all; several hadith exist which expressly forbid women to pray while on their period. (Sunan Abu Dawud, Nos. 271-287, Bukhari, Vol.1., No.327). Several traditions show that menstruating women were not supposed to perform tawaf (circumambulation) around the Kaaba during Hajj while they were menstruating (Bukhari, Vol. 1, Nos. 302,321,325; al-Muwatta, 20.16) The menses were viewed as a temporary illness such that days not fasted had to be made up as any ill person would do after Ramadan.

The Qur'an states that those who are ill or on a journey can desist from fasting and work for essayedge make the days up later (2:184). Geographie! There are no hadith which expressly forbid women from fasting while menstruating, but based on for essayedge the text from the following, one concludes that menstruating women did not fast: Aisha is reported to have said that during menstruation in the time of the Prophet, the women were commanded to complete the fast (abandoned during menses) but were not commanded to complete the (abandoned) prayer (Sunan Abu Dawud, Nos. 262-3, Muslim, Nos. 660-662). Women who have prolonged menses because of an underlying medical problem can resume prayers , fasting, and intercourse after a certain number of papad plan, days (Sunan Abu Dawud, Nos.

274-306, Bukhari, Vol. 1, Nos. 303,306,322,324). In view of the verse mentioned above which admonishes against sexual intercourse with a menstruating woman in order to avoid causing her harm, the exemptions from the above-mentioned rituals could be viewed as an extension of God's consideration of women. Perhaps abstention from prayer and fasting during one's menses is a divine acknowledgement of women's increased difficulty during that period. God gave them permission not to pray or fast as a sign of work, mercy, just as He allows travelers to shorten their prayers to ease their burden. Many Muslims believe that menstruating women are not allowed to enter the mosque or touch the Qur'an.

This relates to the view of the in pakistan essay menstruating woman as unclean. Since she cannot be purified with ablution until after her menses stop, she is not in the proper state to enter a mosque or recite Qur'an. Conflicting hadith exist regarding these habits. When looking at work the whole body of hadith regarding the subject of menstruation, it appears that many of the attacks in pakistan injunctions were made because of the physical problems associated with active bleeding. Women at that time did not have access to modern amenities which protect a woman and her garments from the blood flow. One hadith points out that one of the Prophet's wives (Um Salamah, who was having irregular bleeding) needed a dish underneath her to catch the menstrual blood while she was observing I'tikaf in the mosque during Ramadan (Bukhari No. Work! 306, Sunan Abu Dawud, No.

2470, Muslim, No. 2470). Therefore, practically speaking , women might have been restricted in their activities if they did not have the means to deal with a heavy period, for example. Today, women have so many options so that there are rarely fears of such difficulties. In addition, the i was Prophet once asked Aisha to fetch his mat which was in work for essayedge, the mosque.

She said, But I am menstruating to attacks in pakistan essay which he replied Your menstruation is not in your hand. (Sunan Abu Dawud, No. 261) However, another hadith exists which states that menstruating women should not enter the mosque: The Prophet is reported to have said, I do not make the mosque lawful for a menstruating woman and for a person who is junub. (Sunan Abu Dawud, No. Work For Essayedge! 232) The act of not touching the Qur'an while menstruating is based on the hadith that the Prophet wrote a letter in which he said that no one should touch the Qur'an but one who is pure. (Mishkat-ul-Masabih, No. Paragraphs Writing An Essay! 465;). Also, in Surah 56, verses 77-79 we find: That this indeed is a Qur'an most honorable, in a Book well-guarded, which none shall touch but those who are clean (tahir). In Mishkat-ul Masabih a hadith from Tirmidhi states that the Prophet said that the menstruating woman and work one who is junub should not recite anything from the Qur'an (No.

461). In general, since, in either of these states, women or men are not yet physically purified (tahir) they cannot touch or formally recite the Qur'an until that state comes to an end. By performing ghusl (complete ablution) after the menses are over, one achieves the do you when writing an essay prerequisite physical state which allows for the resumption of for essayedge, prayers, fasting, reciting Qur'an and when i was essay sexual relations. This does not imply impurity of work for essayedge, spirit nor does it necessarily have to mean that a menstruating woman is phd dissertation geographie unclean or dirty. Work! The Prophet was known to perform ghusl after intercourse before reciting Qur'an, and he also would recite Qur'an while resting his head in Aisha's lap and she happened to be menstruating. Papad! (Mishkat, No.

460, Muslim, Nos. 260, 591) It is possible to understand why Muslims might view menses as a negative aspect of the female identity. A well known and oft-quoted hadith which leads to the conclusion that menstruating women neither prayed nor fasted is found in Bukhari with several versions: The Prophet is reported to have said, Isn't it true that a woman does not pray and does not fast on menstruating? And that is the defect in her religion (Vol.

3, No. 172, see also Vol. 1, No. 301). The conclusion usually derived from this hadith is that women can never achieve the same level of for essayedge, faith or spirituality as men because they cannot fulfill their religious duties all the time. The weakness in this argument and therefore in phd dissertation, the hadith is that it contradicts the undisputed image expressed in the Qur'an of women and men as equal in for essayedge, terms of their duties and expectations as Muslims, servants of God. To say that one's faith is determined only by the extent to which she can carry out the rituals negates all of the other aspects of faithfulness and observance that cannot be quantified. God rewards or punishes according to deeds and intentions; how, then, can something that is biologically determined, not chosen or willed by the individual, serve as a measure of faith?

Would God punish women for something that He created? Because this hadith is found in Bukhari, it is indent when an essay rarely questioned or reinterpreted and unfortunately reinforces a negative view of women in Islam. The large volume of hadith regarding menstruation reflects the need for work for essayedge practical guidance on the part of the Muslim community at the time of the essays african apartheid Prophet. After reviewing all of the texts, one can't help but feel the burden of menstruation for the Muslim woman. Regardless of the deficiency hadith and in view of work, modern advances, Muslim women today can view menstruation as a simple fact of life that has no negative bearing on her value as a human being. Modern medicine has enabled us to manipulate the menstrual cycle in a myriad of ways so that women can continue to carry out on south african their activities without being disabled once a month. Indeed, many women take advantage of medical technology to for essayedge avoid menstruating during Hajj which, for many, is essay 2014 truly a once in a lifetime event not to be missed because of bad timing. Virginity and the Hymen: The Double Standard. Throughout childhood and adolescence, girls are sometimes prohibited by their parents from for essayedge engaging in any activities that might interfere with the integrity of the hymen which is a small circular membrane at the opening of the vagina which allows the passage of menstrual flow.

The opening is very narrow and is torn when penetration occurs (as in sexual intercourse). This is occasionally accompanied by bleeding. Phd Dissertation Geographie! Such blood loss has been required in some cultures to prove that the woman is a virgin at work marriage so a blood stained cloth would be given to the groom's family on writing an essay the wedding night to work verify the bride's pure state. If a woman did not bleed, the repercussions could be severe. So it became vitally important that the hymen remain intact as a sign of essay, virginity with the family's honor at stake. While many of the cultural traditions involving proof of a woman's virginity are less prevalent than in the past, one can still find a persistent concern about the hymen as a marker for virginity today throughout many parts of the work for essayedge Muslim world. (It should be noted that the concern about the hymen is essays african apartheid not limited only to Muslims.) As a result, any activity that might cause tearing of the hymen would be forbidden, such as bicycle riding, horseback riding, gymnastics, etc. For Essayedge! Unfortunately, the prohibitions against these activities are rarely accompanied by an explanation (most likely due to shyness on i was essay the part of the parents); thus, the young girl learns that because she is a girl she cannot participate in activities enjoyed by other children. Again, such an attitude promotes a negative self-image. These attitudes are culturally entrenched and not based on Islam. While virginity of for essayedge, both men and women is emphasized in Islam, there is no text in Qur'an or Hadith which specifically addresses the intactness of any part of 2014, a woman's anatomy as a marker for virginity.

As will be discussed in detail later, the Islamic position on sexual behavior is explicit. Both men and women are required to be chaste and to for essayedge seek fulfilling relationships in drone in pakistan essay, marriage. Consequently, pre- and extra-marital relations are prohibited (Qur'an, 17:32, 24:26, 25:68; Bukhari, Vol. 8, Nos. 798-802). Of course, then, there is no debate that Muslims, male and for essayedge female, must be virgins before they enter into their first marriage.

Each individual is responsible and drone attacks in pakistan accountable to God for maintaining a state of purity prior to work matrimony. Why should a woman have to prove that she is a virgin with physical evidence, when the man is taken on his word? Naturally, a woman who marries for papad plan the second or third time cannot give the same proof, meaning the status of the hymen is truly irrelevant for determining sexual purity. The hymen exists as a remnant of work, embryological development which serves no purpose physiologically speaking (K. L. Business Plan! Moore, The Developing Human). If it tears because a girl goes bike riding or uses a tampon or even has a pelvic exam by a physician as part of an evaluation of a medical condition, must it then follow that she is work for essayedge no longer a virgin? The restriction against vaginal penetration applies to premarital sexual behavior with a member of the opposite sex. The prohibition against premarital sex exists because of multiple negative social, psychological and physical consequences that do not apply if the hymen is torn by an act that does not involve sexual intercourse.

An unfortunate consequence of focusing on geographie the shamefulness of sexuality is the inability of many women to enjoy a fulfilling sexual life once married. If a woman is taught from childhood that her genitals are unclean, untouchable, and basically an area off limits, and if inadequate discussion takes place to prepare her for her first sexual experience, then naturally she would be horrified to imagine the for essayedge penetration of that area by another person such as her husband. And if the first encounter is student essay competitions 2014 painful, the stage is set for work inhibition and fear so that a fulfilling sexual relationship is practically impossible. Problems that ensue include the inability to consummate a marriage, vaginismus (spasm of the vaginal muscles which causes pain and prevents penile penetration), dyspareunia (painful intercourse), and the emotional and psychological consequences for indent paragraphs the individuals involved in the relationship. Also, the strong sense of fear and work for essayedge shame often prevents adequate medical evaluation during pelvic examinations because some women are unable to sufficiently relax even if they are married and have already borne children. While our religion stresses the papad plan importance of for essayedge, mutual sexual satisfaction between marriage partners, negative cultural factors can prevent such an phd dissertation, outcome. By educating children and young adults properly about for essayedge sexuality, and by eliminating the features or habits which contribute to a negative self-image, and by focusing on the positive language found regarding these issues in Islamic literature women and men will be able to enjoy a fulfilling sexual relationship in marriage that is a baby each person's right. Sexuality in Qur'an and Hadith. The references to sexuality found in work, Qur'an and hadith will now be discussed. In the following verse, men and women are referred to plan as the garments of one another, implying a sense of for essayedge, balance and mutual nurturance from one to the other.

It is lawful for you to go in geographie, unto your wives during the for essayedge night preceding the (day's) fast: they are as a garment for you, and you are as a garment for drone attacks in pakistan essay them. God is aware that you would have deprived yourselves of this right, and so He has turned unto you in His mercy and removed this hardship from you. Work! Now, then, you may lie with them skin to phd dissertation geographie skin, and avail yourselves to that which God has ordained for you.(2:187) Also, by reviewing this and the verses below one appreciates the fact that sexual relations are sanctioned by God and are viewed as part of the spiritual relationship that exists between a husband and wife. As mentioned earlier, the Qur'an specifically prohibits intercourse during a woman's period (2:222) to avoid causing her discomfort.

In verse 223 of the same Surah, the work for essayedge Qur'an says: Your wives are your tilth; go, then, unto your tilth as you may desire, but first provide something for papad your souls, and remain conscious of God, and know that you are destined to meet Him. And give glad tidings unto those who believe. Based on for essayedge these verses and some hadith, Muslim couples are encouraged to enjoy sexual relations in any manner the two prefer. The only prohibitions involve avoiding intercourse while a woman is menstruating, and avoiding anal penetration (Muslim, No.3365); this explains the i was a baby essay text in the verse mentioned above since it was revealed when one of the Sahaba was concerned about having sexual intercourse from behind. He was worried that he committed a sin. So the Prophet said that any position was lawful as long as anal penetration did not occur. Therefore, if the couple is mutually agreeable, no other restrictions apply. Other verses that address sexuality focus on the unlawfulness of extra-marital sexual relationships which will be discussed later. Sexual Rights of the Wife. Several hadith also address the issue of sexual satisfaction with reference to the wife's rights in this matter.

The Prophet advised Abdullah bin Amr bin Al-As (who spent all day fasting and all night in prayer) to fast sometimes and not at other times; to pray at night and to sleep at night. Your body has a right over you, your eyes have a right over you and your wife has a right over you. Work For Essayedge! (Bukhari, Vol.7, No. 127) The wife's rights include a right to geographie companionship from her husband and fulfillment of her sexual needs. A woman's satisfaction is particularly referred to in the interpretation of the hadiths which discuss penile withdrawal as a method of for essayedge, contraception. One stipulation is that the woman must consent because such a practice could interfere with her sexual fulfillment to which she is entitled. Also, if she desires to bear children, coitus interruptus practiced by her husband would violate that right as well. When I Was A Baby! This viewpoint is based on a hadith transmitted by work, Umar ibn-al-Khattab who said that the Prophet forbade the practice of coitus interruptus with a woman except with her permission This reference is found in Sex and Society in Islam, by B. F. Musallam who also points out that this hadith was considered weak by drone in pakistan essay, some Medieval jurists (see also al-Muwatta, 29.34, No. 100).

Nevertheless, the position regarding the woman's right to orgasm was developed over time by several Muslim jurists during the same period (Busallam, Chapter 2 and footnotes). Also, one undisputed justification for for essayedge divorce on behalf of the wife is her sexual dissatisfaction. The most explicit discussions of student essay, sexual relations with respect to fulfilling the wife's needs are found in the Book on the Etiquette of Marriage, part of Abu Hamid Al-Ghazali's larger work, Revival of the work Religious Sciences (Ihya Ulum al-Din), written in the eleventh century. Student Essay 2014! In spite of some of his comments that are generally disparaging of women, he argues forcefully regarding the wife's right to sexual fulfillment. He quotes the Prophet as saying, Let none of you come upon his wife like an work for essayedge, animal, let there be an emissary between them. Essays! When asked what is the emissary, he replied, The kiss and sweet words.

In another hadith, the Prophet points out that one of the deficiencies of work, a man is that he should approach his wife and attacks essay have sexual contact with her before exchanging words and for essayedge caresses, consequently, he sleeps with her and fulfills his needs (i.e. Student Essay Competitions! orgasm) before she fulfills hers. Al-Ghazali further elaborates on the importance of a woman achieving orgasm by stating, Congruence in for essayedge, attaining a climax is more gratifying to her because the student essay competitions man is not preoccupied with his own pleasure, but rather with hers. Work For Essayedge! Rights of the Husband. The sexual rights of the when i was husband are also elucidated in work for essayedge, the traditions, but the language is such that it appears that his rights supersede those of his wife. Geographie! For example, in Bukhari, AbuHuraira reports that the Prophet said, If a man invites his wife to sleep with him and she refuses, then the angels send their curses on her till morning. (Vol. 7, No. 121-2; in for essayedge, Muslim, the text reads that God is displeased with her until the drone husband is pleased with her Nos. 3366-68). In Riyadh-us-Salaheen, a hadith attributed to for essayedge Tirmidhi and Nisai states that the Prophet said, When a man sends for his wife for the satisfaction of his need, she should go to him even if she may be occupied in baking bread. (No. 284) Similarly, Muslim women are advised not to drone fast without the permission of their husbands since fasting would interfere with sexual relations (Sunan Abu Dawud, Nos. 2452-3; Muslim, Nos.

3366-68; Bukhari, Vol.7, No. 120). Clearly, Islamic literature stresses the work importance of the sexual relationship between a husband and wife, but the above traditions seem to paragraphs when writing an essay show that the husband's right to have sex is for essayedge more important than the wife's right of refusal if she is not willing for whatever reason. The only time she can refuse intercourse, then, is on south apartheid during menstruation. The verse (2:222) commands Muslims to avoid sex during that time because it may be associated with discomfort on for essayedge the part of the woman. A logical conclusion would be that sexual relations are better avoided for i was essay any circumstances (physical or otherwise) that would lead to discomfort. A common view of sex is that the stronger sexual urges of men (compared to women) can be controlled only to a certain extent; according to some, this justifies the work practice of polygamy even though the Qur'an makes no mention of essays apartheid, sexual desires in the verses on polygamy (4:3-5). Also, the same argument is made to justify forcing women to have sex against work their will, as they are forbidden to refuse to have sexual relations. Since the husband's urges are so strong, and to prevent him from acting out on them illicitly, a wife's duty therefore is to submit in do you paragraphs when writing, order to preserve the marriage. Yet, human beings are endowed with self control not seen in work, any other species, such that we do not act on business every instinctual impulse because of some uncontrollable force.

This is what distinguishes humankind since God gave us the ability to think and make choices. Therefore, there is no justification for forcing women to have sex against their will, even in marriage. One does not find any traditions that show the Prophet as an aggressive or coercive husband. Similarly, behavior involving coercion and force goes against the philosophy of mutual satisfaction outlined in the Qur'an (see verses above) and against the hadith which states that the best among Muslims are those who are best towards their wives (Riyadh-us-Salaheen, No. 278). Also, the Prophet expressed his strong disapproval of for essayedge, those who physically beat their wives and then had sexual relations that night (Bukhari, Vol. 7, No. 132, Vol.9, 81-82; see also Riyadh us-Salaheen, No. Phd Dissertation! 274). The example of the Prophet clearly reveals that he and his wives enjoyed physical affection not necessarily related to intercourse thus reflecting an work, attitude of loving behavior in a variety of circumstances.

Based on do you indent when writing an essay the hadith transmitted by his wives (particularly regarding physical intimacy while they were menstruating), this behavior included kissing, caressing, embracing and work for essayedge bathing together. Drone In Pakistan Essay! (Sunan Abu Dawud, Nos. 267-273, 2376-2379; Muslim, Nos. 577-586, 629) Husbands and wives should strive to work for essayedge satisfy one another's sexual needs as much as possible. This can be achieved by on south apartheid, honest, open discussions; care, kindness and a desire to please one another. Viewing sexual intimacy as an important part of the relationship will enable a couple to achieve mutual satisfaction that enhances the overall success of the marriage. Clearly, coercion and work for essayedge lack of consideration for one's spouses feelings will result in paragraphs when writing an essay, tension that can have negative effects on the rest of the relationship. Unfortunately, if a Muslim woman is for essayedge raised to abhor and fear any matters related to sex, then in most instances of student competitions 2014, sexual contact she would be a passive and perhaps unwilling participant, and definitely not one who derives pleasure from for essayedge sex. Papad! Also, the general view of sex as a shameful and work for essayedge dirty act contributes to inhibitions of both men and papad plan women, preventing them from enjoying an act sanctioned by God.

The following hadith highlights the importance of work for essayedge, privacy in sexual relationships: the Prophet is reported to have said, The most wicked among the people in the sight of God on the Day of Judgement is the competitions 2014 man who goes to his wife and she comes to for essayedge him, and then he divulges her secret. (Muslim, Nos. Essay! 3369-70). Consequently, Muslims would be very unlikely to discuss matters of their sexual lives outside of the work home. By keeping sexual issues private, the couple ensures mutual respect and avoids the chances of violating trust by divulging personal tastes and practices to attacks in pakistan essay others. However, this attitude would also prevent couples from seeking necessary help, thus diminishing opportunities for alleviating any problems related to sexual dysfunction.

Consultations with professionals, such as physicians, would not violate the code of privacy, and could help the individual or couple in work for essayedge, matters that significantly impact the marriage. Sex Outside of Marraige. As mentioned earlier, the Qur'an specifically prohibits sexual acts outside of marriage (zina). Interestingly, the text does not go into detail to explain why such behavior is sinful. The verses which mention illicit sexual relations do so while admonishing Muslims to avoid other grave sinful deeds such as murder and stealing (Qur'an 25:68, 60:12). Muslims acknowledge and believe in Divine wisdom which is understood, to some extent, by the application of common sense and essays on south apartheid an exploration of the ramifications of fornication and adultery which include but are not limited to unwanted pregnancy, transmission of sexually transmitted diseases, negative emotional and psychological consequences, and physical intimacy without emotional commitment. In addition to Qur'an, numerous hadith exist which point out that zina is considered a major sin (Bukhari, Vol.7, No. 148; Vol. 8, Nos. 798-802).

The issue of extramarital sexual relations takes on even more profound importance because laws exist in Islamic jurisprudence which outline the punishment (hadd) for this behavior which is considered a sex crime. Clearly, the threat of punishment authorized by God serves as a very effective deterrent for illicit sexual behavior which results in negative social consequences beyond those experienced by the couple in question. Even though the text is clear regarding the unlawfulness of zina, the work following references point out how difficult it is to accuse someone of african apartheid, such a crime. According to the Qur'an, those who accuse another of work for essayedge, zina are required to produce four eyewitnesses of the act of genital penetration (meaning the act of intercourse would practically have to be committed in geographie, public view). According to work hadith, other incriminating evidence include confession and pregnancy (Bukhari, Vol.

8, No. 816; Sunan Abu Dawud, No. 4518; Muslim, No. 4194). While the seriousness of the crime is not in phd dissertation geographie, question, the Prophet himself demonstrated reluctance in reacting to accusations and work even confessions without giving individuals the opportunity to avoid punishment and repent to God, with the hopes of avoiding punishment in the hereafter as well. Drone Attacks In Pakistan! In addition, the Prophet himself advised the believers not to make public their misbehaviors. When a man came to work confess that he had been with a woman and did everything except sexual intercourse, Omar ibn al Khattab said, Allah has concealed your fault; it would have been better if you had concealed it yourself.

The Prophet then quoted the verse, And be constant in praying at the beginning and student essay competitions 2014 the end of the day. for, verily, good deeds drive away evil deeds: this is a reminder to all who bear (God) in mind. (11:114). In addition, the Qur'an elsewhere clearly stresses the importance of sincerely repenting as God is work for essayedge ever merciful (4:15-16). Several hadith refer to an instance in which the Prophet tried to give a man the opportunity to avoid punishment. Maiz ibn Malik came to when the Prophet insisting on confessing his sin of work for essayedge, fornication with a slavegirl. The Prophet responded by turning away from him, then insisted that the competitions 2014 couple must have just looked at each other, or only embraced or kissed; but Maiz persisted with his confession of for essayedge, actual intercourse. The Prophet gave him ample opportunity to conceal his sin, and repent privately with the hopes of receiving God's forgiveness. Yet, Maiz also knew that punishment in this life would replace the possible punishment awaiting in the Hereafter. So upon acknowledgement and confession of fornication, the Prophet ordered the essays punishment. (Bukhari, Vol. 8, Nos.

806, 810, 812-14; Sunan Abu Dawud, No. 4413). A similar story involves a pregnant woman who also wanted to confess and receive punishment. Again, the Prophet first told her to Go back to her tribe, but she returned again wishing to work for essayedge confess. The Prophet told her to go back until the geographie child was born. She returned again with the work infant and he told her to suckle him until you wean him. She returned when the boy was weaned, again confessing fully, resulting in the prescribed punishment. (Sunan Abu Dawud, No. 4428). For a couple (or individual) convicted of 2014, zina, the punishment would be harsh. Work For Essayedge! According to the Qur'an , 100 lashes for do you indent when each (24:2).

In several hadith collections, the punishment of stoning to work death is described for those guilty of adultery. Indent! This divergence is significant because stoning resulted in death while flogging did not.. The Qur'an does not distinguish between fornication and adultery but uses one word to describe both, zina. Belief in the Qur'an as the final word would argue that the work use of stoning to death instead of flogging is inappropriate; indeed a hadith in Bukhari states that a transmitter of one of the stoning hadiths did not know if stoning was practiced before or after the revelation of the above Qur'anic verse (Vol. .8, No. 804).

Interestingly, both Bukhari and Muslim report a hadith transmitted by when a baby essay, Ibn Abbas who narrated that Umar ibn al-Khattab feared that in future times Muslims would not use stoning as punishment because it is not mentioned in for essayedge, the Qur'an. But he spoke to confirm the obligation of its use as punishment for proven cases of adultery. Phd Dissertation Geographie! (Bukhari, Vol.8, No. For Essayedge! 816; Muslim, No. 4194). All of these issues dealing with punishment must be reviewed by on south african, modern Islamic jurists to develop laws (in those countries where Islamic law is applied) that incorporate the Islamic principles of justice, due process and compassion. In countries where Muslims live as minorities (where Islamic law does not prevail), these punishments cannot be carried out by zealous individuals or communities who may feel that they are required to carry out God's law in spite of the prevailing legal system. Yet, the system of Islamic jurisprudence must guarantee basic rights of individuals accused of serious crimes: these rights cannot possibly be upheld without a court system with checks and for essayedge balances to ensure enforcement of the when i was a baby law while respecting the rights of for essayedge, individuals. The main point is that, while the punishment for zina is severe and extreme, the requirements for proof of guilt are so strict that the chances of drone in pakistan essay, one actually being convicted and then punished are very small. Thus the individual Muslim who commits such acts in private, without fear of retribution should pay heed to the following verses:

Verily, God's acceptance of repentance relates only to those who do evil out of ignorance and then repent before their time runs out. Work! And it is they unto whom God will turn again in His mercy - for God is essay competitions 2014 all-knowing, wise; whereas repentance shall not be accepted from those who do evil deeds until their dying hour and then say, Behold I now repent; nor from those who die as deniers of truth; it is these for whom We have readied grievous suffering.(4:17-18) While it may seem obvious to some, the definition of zina is not without controversy. Again, using the hadith mentioned above(Bukhari, Vol. 8, No. 806, etc.), the Prophet did not consider Maiz ibn Malek of a crime until he confessed of actual sexual intercourse involving penile penetration. This does not mean that other behaviors such as kissing, heavy petting, oral sex are not prohibited but that the work for essayedge requirements needed to justify a harsh punishment are strict. Obviously, many couples can engage in all of a baby essay, these activities without being exposed to witnesses and thus avoid punishment in this life. But they still must answer to God who, in work for essayedge, no uncertain terms, admonishes against indent writing an essay any sexual contact outside of marriage. False Accusations and for essayedge Honor. If a husband accuses his wife of adultery by swearing four times and she denies any wrongdoing under oath, then she is vindicated (Qur'an 24:6-9).

According to Muhammad Asad (footnote 10, Surah 24) the same applies if a woman accuses her husband. If the accusation is found to be false the punishment of the phd dissertation accuser is severe: And as for those who accuse chaste women (of adultery), and then are unable to produce four witnesses (in support of thier accusation), flog them with eighty s stripes; an for essayedge, ever after refuse to accept from essays on south african apartheid them any testimony- since it is they, they that are truly depraved!- excepting only those who afterwards repent and made amends for, behold, God is much-forgiving, a dispenser of grace. And as for those who accuse their own wives, but have no witnesses except themselves, let each of these (accusers) call God four times to witness that he is indeed telling the truth, and the fifth time, that God's curse be upon him if he is telling a lie. (As for the wife, all) chastisement shall be averted from her by her calling God four times to work witness that he is indeed telling a lie, and the fifth (time), that God's curse be upon her if she is telling the truth . (24:4-8) These verses were revealed in a baby, response to accusations against Aisha, the Prophet's wife, who was left behind the for essayedge caravan when she went looking for drone in pakistan essay a lost necklace. A young soldier happened upon her and escorted her to the camp where they arrived the following day. Rumors about sexual misconduct spread, causing great upheaval and emotional distress in the household of the Prophet. The above verses point out that a woman's word to swear to her innocence is sufficient to both preserve her reputation and work result in punishment of her accusers.

The following verse admonishes the community for not questioning the rumors and giving Aisha, the accused, the african benefit of the doubt: Why do not the believing men and for essayedge women, whenever such (a rumor) is heard, think the best of one another and say, 'This is an obvious falsehood'. and were it not for papad business plan God's favor upon work for essayedge you, and His grace in this world and in the life to come, awesome suffering would indeed have afflicted you in result of all (the calumny) in which you indulge when you take it up with your tongues, uttering with your mouths something of which you have no knowledge, and deeming it a light matter whereas in the sight of God it is an awful thing. When I Was A Baby Essay! Verily, as for those who like (to hear)foul slander spread against (any of) those who have attained to faith - grievous suffering awaits them in this world and in the life to come: for God knows (the full truth), whereas you know (it) not (24:12-19). Slander is work for essayedge considered a grave offense since it taints the reputation of individuals and disrupts relationships The verses, while referring to papad business plan Aisha's particular case, universally applied, serve to protect women from any unfair accusations about their chastity. Unfortunately in work for essayedge, many communities throughout the Muslim world the, honor of the entire family is do you indent writing caught up in for essayedge, and determined by the reputation of the female members, who can be accused of sexual misconduct, even if it is only suspected. As is clear from the above verses, singling out women for punishment based only on phd dissertation geographie accusations or assumptions has no basis in Islam. Even if a woman is accused of work for essayedge, fornication, and papad plan she denies the accusation, no punishment is carried out (Sunan Abu Dawud, No. 4451). For Essayedge! Thus, even the on south african suggestion of misbehavior (usually acts other than intercourse) cannot possibly serve as evidence of wrongdoing to Islamically justify retribution (such as honor killings) on the part of the woman's family.

The sin of false accusations and the focus on absolving the one who is falsely accused has become problematic regarding the punishment of rape. If a woman accuses a man of raping her and he denies that he did, she is basically confessing to illicit sexual contact and therefore punishable. This is even more problematic if the woman has no other evidence besides her testimony. This is the current state of affairs in work, Pakistan where rape victims are punished for the crime committed against them. According to Imam Malik, if a man is convicted of essay competitions 2014, rape, he receives the for essayedge punishment as mentioned for zina and also must pay a mahr (bride-price) to the victim (al-Muwatta, 36.16). Imam Malik also states that if an unmarried woman is pregnant and claims to student essay competitions have been raped, unless there is physical evidence, she is presumed to be guilty of fornication and therefore punished (al-Muwatta, 41.4). Work! Again, based on earlier interpretations, the woman is made to suffer for a crime committed by another because the focus is plan erroneously on work for essayedge the sexual act and not on rape as an essays on south african, act of violence.

Rather than viewing the act of sex as the issue requiring jurisdiction, the judges should view rape as an act of violence perpetrated against an unwilling victim who cannot be considered guilty of a sex crime. Along the lines of sexual behavior arises the issue of homosexuality about which the Islamic position is clear. Based on numerous verses in work for essayedge, the Qur'an which refer to do you indent when Prophet Lot and the sins committed by his community, one concludes that homosexual relations are prohibited. For Essayedge! (7:80-84, 11:77-83, 15:57-77, 26:160-175, 27:54-58, 29:28-35)) Again, the Qur'an does not go into great detail to explain why; and again Muslims first accept God's wisdom and then apply reason to come to an understanding. The most basic argument is that homosexual behavior is paragraphs ultimately detrimental to the survival of work, thehuman race. Also, it is contrary to the Islamic position of the importance of the bond between husbands and wives which is a goal for which Muslims are encouraged to strive. (based on a well known hadith that marriage is attacks essay half of one's religion.) Like zina, punishment has been described for those who are found to engage in homosexual acts. Work! The Qur'an is somewhat vague on phd dissertation geographie the issue of punishment. The only verse which alludes to work for essayedge this behavior again calls for four witnesses to confirm the immoral conduct (fahishah) between two women or two men; if they are found guilty, they are to be punished, but if they repent they are to be left alone (4:15-16). The type of punishment is not defined. Drone Essay! The hadith are more specific. For Essayedge! In Sunan Abu Dawud, Ibn Abbas reported that the Prophet said if anyone is found doing as Lot's people did, to kill the one who does it (sodomy) and to whom it is done (No.

4447). In the footnote to this hadith it is pointed out that the jurists differed in opinion regarding how the punishment would be carried out. Basically, homosexual acts are considered illicit and if verified by witnesses or confession, then the individuals would be punished like those who commit zina. What occurs in private is essay 2014 between individuals who are ultimately accountable to God. Naturally, sexual feelings can arise for people who are not yet married. An oft quoted hadith advises fasting to help quell the sexual appetite (Bukhari, Vol. 3, No. Work! 129). For some this may not really help.

But feelings of frustration do not justify acting them out with someone outside of the marital relationship. Therefore, one could argue for the benefit of indent paragraphs when writing an essay, masturbation which would relieve the frustration and prevent illicit sexual contact (see Musallam, p.33 and Qaradawi, pp. 170-1). According to Al-Qaradawi in The Lawful and Prohibited in Islam, the work for essayedge majority of scholars consider masturbation haram (forbidden). But, he does point out that the Hanbali jurists permit masturbation for i was those afraid of committing fornication or adultery or for those without the means to marry. While the value of family and raising children is undisputed among most Muslims, it is well known that contraception is permitted and can be practiced for work a variety of reasons at the discretion of the couple.

This is consistent with the view that the purpose of sexual behavior between husband and do you an essay wife is work not limited to geographie procreation. The Prophet did not prohibit contraception (the withdrawal method or coitus interruptus practiced at the time) and did not mention any stipulations in any of the hadith except one mentioned earlier which refers to the importance of obtaining the wife's consent before practicing withdrawal. Similarly, use of female controlled methods, such as the birth control pill, would require the for essayedge husband's consent in business, consideration of his desires for bearing children. (Bukhari, Vol. 7, Nos. 135-6; Muslim, Nos. 3371-88; al-Muwatta, 29.34) While withdrawal was the method practiced during the for essayedge Prophet's time, by analogy, contraception by the means available today is also permitted. In almost every hadith that discusses withdrawal ('azl) the Prophet is reported to have said that even if it is practiced, if God intends a child to be born she/he will be born. Although the methods used today for contraception are very effective, not a single one provides 100% assurance that pregnancy will not occur; so, as always, God's will prevails when He so ordains a matter such as conception. Some Muslims argue that sterilization of men or women is not allowed as a method of contraception because it alters the human body.

They use the essays african apartheid hadith which admonish against altering one's features for cosmetic reasons (Y. Al-Qaradawi, The Lawful and Prohibited in Islam, pp. 88-9). Surgery done for beautification is clearly not the for essayedge same as that done for essay contraception so the connection is work flawed at best, and does not offer a convincing argument against sterilization. Like the other monotheistic religions, Islam prohibits the taking of the life of another human being without just cause (i.e. in phd dissertation geographie, self-defense, see 5:32) Therefore the question arises, at what point in gestation does the work for essayedge fetus become a human, such that to remove it would be described as murder.

The debate in student, modern Western society centers around the issue of choice. Since the work for essayedge pregnancy is part of the 2014 woman's body, she has the work for essayedge right to i was a baby make decisions regarding the outcome. On the other hand, the fetus is a potential human being who has rights of her/his own, one of them being the right to for essayedge life. By the early third trimester, when an infant born can survive outside of the womb, to business plan terminate a pregnancy is considered illegal. Prior to that stage of gestation, the fetus definitely cannot survive, therefore, it is not yet considered a human being . Others believe that the fetus's status as a human begins at conception. In spite of the positions of the major jurists, many Muslims today ( and some earlier jurists) believe that abortion is unlawful under any circumstances unless the woman's life is endangered by the pregnancy.

Modern technology (not available to early jurists) enables the physician to see the beating heart of work, a 21 day old embryo; whether the papad plan embryo qualifies as a person is really only known by work, God. Many feel that life and the human spirit are present at conception meaning pregnancy termination at any stage would involve the unlawful taking of a life ( see Islamic Perspectives in Obstetrics and Gynecology, by Dr. Hassan Hathout, pp. 61-78 ). While some modern day scholars also feel that the fetus' right to life prevails even in cases of incest or rape, others consider those situations exceptional and think abortion is allowed to preserve the emotional and psychological well-being of the woman. Female Genital Mutilation. Since female genital mutilation (FGM , known also as female circumcision). is a custom among some Muslims, the Islamic position must be made clear. This practice which involves varying degrees of mutilation (from removing the clitoris to removing all labia and sewing the vagina to such an extent that only a small opening exists to allow passage of menstrual blood) presumably is performed to limit the sexual activity of women . By eliminating their ability to experience orgasm , they will be less likely to misbehave before or during marriage. This practice pre-dated Islam and is currently a custom in a few Muslim countries, particularly in essay competitions 2014, Africa. Work! Only one hadith exists which specifically addresses FGM.

In Sunan Abu Dawud, Um Atiya said that the essays african Prophet told a woman who performed circumcision in Medina to not cut severely as that is better for a woman and more desirable for a husband (No. 5251). According to Abu Dawud, this is work a weak hadith (mursal). Attacks! In the work footnote of this hadith, the translator, Ahmad Hasan, points out that all of the major scholars maintained that FGM was recommended (but to essay what degree was not specified). As mentioned throughout this chapter, focusing on sexuality in a positive manner can be a difficult task for Muslims. Cultural views of women in general, fear of committing and being punished for sin, and the use of sex as a means of domination have all contributed to the silence and repression that prevent people from being comfortable with their sexuality as individuals and in relationships. Through education and understanding, a more positive approach can lead to work a better outcome. Teaching children to accept their bodies and essay sexuality contributes to developing strong self-esteem which is work a major determinant of future sexual activity. Young people, particularly women, with low self-esteem are more likely to engage in sexual behavior at i was a baby essay a young age.

Fostering self-esteem occurs mainly within the family unit and also in schools and society at large. Informing children and young adults about the work for essayedge changes that occur as they grow and then teaching them about developing healthy relationships with others is possible through formalized educational settings (especially if the parents feel too uncomfortable discussing sexuality.) Also, a willingness on the part of do you paragraphs when writing an essay, adults to answer questions openly and to discuss difficult issues such as homosexualty or sexually transmitted diseases will enable young adults to approach their parents and educators and therefore be less likely to work obtain inaccurate information from their peers or the media. The Prophet was well-known for essays on south apartheid his frankness in discussing all issues, including those related to sex and for essayedge sexual development. In one hadith, he is asked by a woman if, when a woman has an orgasm while asleep (during dreaming), does she have to perform complete ablution (ghusl) prior to doing her prayers. Student Essay Competitions 2014! The Prophet answered that she does because such an experience is akin to the nocturnal emissions of men which require ghusl. Work For Essayedge! (Muslim, Nos. 607-613; Bukhari, Vol.1, No. 280) This is a well known hadith which shows that the early Muslims felt no inhibition about addressing the do you when writing an essay Prophet about sensitive issues such as female orgasm (see also Muslim, No. Work! 649). Muslims today must follow the example of the Prophet to use wisdom and beautiful preaching to talk to one another and their children about all matters. Teaching about sexuality from an Islamic perspective is necessary for Muslim young people who are growing up in a society full of tremendous pressures.

Regarding menstruation, it is important to teach our daughters that this is paragraphs writing an essay a special part of development that signals the onset of adulthood and possible future child-bearing. A supportive attitude by parents is essential as girls struggle to deal with a change that may leave them feeling uncomfortable and sometimes embarrassed. Pre-adolescents are usually preoccupied with the work for essayedge opinions of their peers. So, a Muslim girl who isn't praying or fasting because it is that time of the month naturally feels exposed and maybe even isolated. Again, this points to the importance of teaching respect to all children to minimize the potential for hurt feelings and shame. Papad Business Plan! Also, discussing this in appropriate sex education courses for young Muslims enables them to be educated and informed so that mature attitudes will be engendered among boys and girls. One could argue that the strong language found in the Qur'an and Hadith against work for essayedge unlawful sex contributes to a negative attitude regarding sex in general. Indeed, fear of retribution is often used to discourage young adults from engaging in premarital sexual behavior, thus contributing to inhibition, guilt and do you when an essay repression that interfere with healthy sexuality in for essayedge, marriage. Muslims must be willing to discuss these issues openly with their children to point out the wisdom of postponing sexual behavior until marriage and to focus on papad business plan all of the positive aspects that a healthy sexual relationship contributes to that union. Rules without explanation only stimulate a young person's curiosity and for essayedge interest in risky behavior that is i was a baby essay glorified by the media and often practiced by work, one's peers.

Also, when instilled with a strong sense of self esteem and identity, young people are better equipped to competitions 2014 deal with the pressures they face particularly during adolescence when many of their friends are experimenting sexually.

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